‘Who slept among the heroes of Sardinia’ — Aristotle on time and memory

“But surely, we recognize time whenever, marking by the before and after, we marked a change. And that’s when we say time has passed: when we have grasped in the change a perception of the before and after. We mark them by grasping that one thing is different from another, and a certain interval is different from them. For when we consider the extremes to be different, and the soul says that there are two nows—the one before, the other after—then this we also assert to be time. For what is marked by the now is thought to be time. Let us assume this.”

ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ τὸν χρόνον γε γνωρίζομεν ὅταν ὁρίσωμεν τὴν κίνησιν, τῷ πρότερον καὶ ὕστερον ὁρίζοντες· καὶ τότε φαμὲν γεγονέναι χρόνον, ὅταν τοῦ προτέρου καὶ ὑστέρου ἐν τῇ κινήσει αἴσθησιν λάβωμεν. ὁρίζομεν δὲ τῷ ἄλλο καὶ ἄλλο ὑπολαβεῖν αὐτά, καὶ μεταξύ τι αὐτῶν ἕτερον· ὅταν γὰρ ἕτερα τὰ ἄκρα τοῦ μέσου νοήσωμεν, καὶ δύο εἴπῃ ἡ ψυχὴ τὰ νῦν, τὸ μὲν πρότερον τὸ δ' ὕστερον, τότε καὶ τοῦτό φαμεν εἶναι χρόνον· τὸ γὰρ ὁριζόμενον τῷ νῦν χρόνος εἶναι δοκεῖ· καὶ ὑποκείσθω.

Aristotle, Physics 4.11, 219a22-30

“Memory is neither a perception nor a conception; instead, it is a state or affection of a certain one of them, when time has passed. There is no memory of the now in the now, as we said; rather, perception is of the present, hope of the future, memory of the past. For this reason, all memory follows time. Thus, only those animals which perceive time can remember, and with that by which they perceive.”

ἔστι μὲν οὖν ἡ μνήμη οὔτε αἴσθησις οὔτε ὑπόληψις, ἀλλὰ τούτων τινὸς ἕξις ἢ πάθος, ὅταν γένηται χρόνος. τοῦ δὲ νῦν ἐν τῷ νῦν οὐκ ἔστι μνήμη, καθάπερ εἴρηται [καὶ πρότερον], ἀλλὰ τοῦ μὲν παρόντος αἴσθησις, τοῦ δὲ μέλλοντος ἐλπίς, τοῦ δὲ γενομένου μνήμη· διὸ μετὰ χρόνου πᾶσα μνήμη. ὥσθ' ὅσα χρόνου αἰσθάνεται, ταῦτα μόνα τῶν ζῴων μνημονεύει, καὶ τούτῳ ᾧ αἰσθάνεται.*

Aristotle, On Memory 1, 449b24-30

*note: Aristotle thinks time is something that happens to us, that affects us, like color or taste or touch.

“Neither (is there time) without change: for when we ourselves do not change our state of mind, or when we have not noticed ourselves changing, then time does not seem to us to have passed—just like it does not for those whom the stories tell slept among the Heroes in Sardinia: when they wake up,* they connect the earlier now with the later now and make them one, cutting out the interval. So, just as if the now were not different but one and the same, there would not be time, so, too, when we do not notice a difference, it does not seem that there has been an interval of time.”

Ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδ' ἄνευ γε μεταβολῆς· ὅταν γὰρ μηδὲν αὐτοὶ μεταβάλλωμεν τὴν διάνοιαν ἢ λάθωμεν μεταβάλλοντες, οὐ δοκεῖ ἡμῖν γεγονέναι χρόνος, καθάπερ οὐδὲ τοῖς ἐν Σαρδοῖ μυθολογουμένοις καθεύδειν παρὰ τοῖς ἥρωσιν, ὅταν ἐγερθῶσι· συνάπτουσι γὰρ τῷ πρότερον νῦν τὸ ὕστερον νῦν καὶ ἓν ποιοῦσιν, ἐξαιροῦντες διὰ τὴν ἀναισθησίαν τὸ μεταξύ.* ὥσπερ οὖν εἰ μὴ ἦν ἕτερον τὸ νῦν ἀλλὰ ταὐτὸ καὶ ἕν, οὐκ ἂν ἦν χρόνος, οὕτως καὶ ἐπεὶ λανθάνει ἕτερον ὄν, οὐ δοκεῖ εἶναι τὸ μεταξὺ χρόνος.

Aristotle, Physics 4.11, 218b21-29

*Two versions of the story are told by Ross in his commentary (and what follows is roughly a quotation from him, p. 597). Philoponus says sick people went to the heroes of Sardinia for treatment, slept for five days, which they didn’t remember when they woke up. Simplicius says that nine children born to Heracles died in Sardinia, did not decay, and looked like men asleep. Rohde (Rhein Mus. 35 (1880), pp. 157-163) points out the story’s affinities to legends which represent Alexander the Great, Nero, Charlemagne, Arthur, and Barbarossa as sleeping in the earth until they awake and come to revisit their people.

Aristotle and Solon on acting our natural age

“For the end containing the time of each animal, beyond which there is no time in accordance with nature, has been called the age of each them.”

ὸ γὰρ τέλος τὸ περιέχον τὸν τῆς ἑκάστου ζωῆς χρόνον, οὗ μηθὲν ἔξω κατὰ φύσιν, αἰὼν ἑκάστου κέκληται.

Aristotle, De caelo 1.9, 279a23-30

“At seven years, a child, when he is still young and immature, loses the first set of teeth he has grown. When the god grants him another seven years, the child shows signs of coming puberty. At the third, as the body grows, the chin grows a beard, while the blush of the skin begins to change. At the fourth seven-year period, everyone is at their best in strength, and by it men make a trial of the excellence they have. At the fifth, it is time for a man to be reminded of marriage and to seek for a generation of children to come after him. At the sixth, a man’s mind is training in all things, and likewise he no longer wishes to do foolish things. At the seventh seven-year period, he is best in mind and speech, and at the eighth as well—in all, fourteen years. At the ninth, he is still powerful, but his speech and wisdom are softer in extent of excellence than they were. But if someone, having completed the measure, gets to the tenth (i.e., 70 years), he would not receive the fate of death at the wrong season.”

παῖς μὲν ἄνηβος ἐὼν ἔτι νήπιος ἕρκος ὀδόντων φύσας ἐκβάλλει πρῶτον ἐν ἕπτ' ἔτεσιν. τοὺς δ' ἑτέρους ὅτε δὴ τελέσηι θεὸς ἕπτ' ἐνιαυτούς, ἥβης †δὲ φάνει† σήματα γεινομένης. τῆι τριτάτηι δὲ γένειον ἀεξομένων ἔτι γυίων λαχνοῦται, χροιῆς ἄνθος ἀμειβομένης. τῆι δὲ τετάρτηι πᾶς τις ἐν ἑβδομάδι μέγ' ἄριστος ἰσχύν, ἧι τ' ἄνδρες πείρατ' ἔχουσ' ἀρετῆς. πέμπτηι δ' ὥριον ἄνδρα γάμου μεμνημένον εἶναι καὶ παίδων ζητεῖν εἰσοπίσω γενεήν. τῆι δ' ἕκτηι περὶ πάντα καταρτύεται νόος ἀνδρός, οὐδ' ἔρδειν ἔθ' ὁμῶς ἔργ' ἀπάλαμνα θέλει. ἑπτὰ δὲ νοῦν καὶ γλῶσσαν ἐν ἑβδομάσιν μέγ' ἄριστος ὀκτώ τ'· ἀμφοτέρων τέσσαρα καὶ δέκ' ἔτη. τῆι δ' ἐνάτηι ἔτι μὲν δύναται, μαλακώτερα δ' αὐτοῦ πρὸς μεγάλην ἀρετὴν γλῶσσά τε καὶ σοφίη. τὴν δεκάτην δ' εἴ τις τελέσας κατὰ μέτρον ἵκοιτο, οὐκ ἂν ἄωρος ἐὼν μοῖραν ἔχοι θανάτου.

Solon, fragment 27 West

Spontaneous Generation: Galen and Alexander against the Platonists on why the world soul doesn’t make mosquitos

Stranger: Take animals and all mortal things, and even plants, those which grow from seeds on the earth or those which grow from roots, and those bodies without soul which form in the earth, both the ones that can be melted and the ones that can’t. Surely we are not going to say anything other than divine craftsmanship makes them come to be after previously not being? Or do we consult the saying and opinion of the masses that…

Theaetetus: That what?

Stranger: That nature produces them from some spontaneous cause and without an engendering thought, rather than with reason and divine knowledge that comes from a god?

Ξένος: ζῷα δὴ πάντα θνητά, καὶ δὴ καὶ φυτὰ ὅσα τ᾽ ἐπὶ γῆς ἐκ σπερμάτων καὶ ῥιζῶν φύεται, καὶ ὅσα ἄψυχα ἐν γῇ συνίσταται σώματα τηκτὰ καὶ ἄτηκτα, μῶν ἄλλου τινὸς ἢ θεοῦ δημιουργοῦντος φήσομεν ὕστερον γίγνεσθαι πρότερον οὐκ ὄντα; ἢ τῷ τῶν πολλῶν δόγματι καὶ ῥήματι χρώμενοι—

Θεαίτητος: ποίῳ τῳ;

Ξένος: τὴν φύσιν αὐτὰ γεννᾶν ἀπό τινος αἰτίας αὐτομάτης καὶ ἄνευ διανοίας φυούσης, ἢ μετὰ λόγου τε καὶ ἐπιστήμης θείας ἀπὸ θεοῦ γιγνομένης; [265δ]

Plato, Sophist 265 C-D

“When one of my Platonists teachers told me that the soul-that-is-extended-through-the-whole-cosmos formed the (human) embryo, I thought that the technical skill and power is worthy of it; but, I could not abide thinking that the world-soul formed scorpions, poisonous spiders, flies, conopses, vipers, grubs, worms and ascarides. I take it this kind of opinion comes near impiety. ”

εἰπόντος δέ τινος τῶν διδασκάλων μοι τῶν Πλατωνικῶν, τὴν δι' ὅλου κόσμου ψυχὴν ἐκτεταμένην διαπλάττειν τὰ κυούμενα, τὴν μὲν τέχνην καὶ δύναμιν ἀξίαν ἐκείνης ἐνόμισα, σκορπίους δὲ καὶ φαλάγγια, καὶ μυῖαν καὶ κώνωπας, ἐχίδνας τε καὶ σκώληκας, ἕλμινθάς τε καὶ ἀσκαρίδας ὑπ' ἐκείνης διαπλάττεσθαι νομίζειν οὐχ ὑπέμεινα, πλησίον ἀσεβείας ἥκειν ὑπολαβὼν τὴν τοιαύτην δόξαν.

Galen, On the Formation of the Foetus, 4.700—701 K

“Again, it is possible to discover the existence of a regular order even among evil things and things that come to be contrary to nature, like abscesses, wounds, inflammations, and periodic illnesses. But also the generation of some living things is in fact orderly, without being relative to an Idea, like the generation of grubs, gnats, and grubs.”

ἔτι τὸ εὔτακτον ἔστιν εὑρεῖν καὶ ἐν τοῖς κακοῖς καὶ παρὰ φύσιν γιγνομένοις, οἷον ἀποστήματα, τραύματα, φλεγμοναί, νόσων περίοδοι. ἀλλὰ καὶ ζῴων τινῶν γενέσεις τεταγμέναι μέν, ἀλλ' οὐ πρὸς ἰδέαν, οἷον σκωλήκων, ἐμπίδων, τερηδόνων.

Alexander of Aphrodisias, On Aristotle’s Metaphysics Α, 103,35-104-19 Hayduck

A sweet-smelling, summer-time deodorant from Crito

“Crito’s sweet-smelling, summer-time poultice useful for whole body:

‘When there’s a lot of sweat troubling the body, it is going to be disgusting—especially during the summer-time, since the sweat comes on with a great deal of nausea and stench. That’s why this prescription is not just for women, but for men as well. In fact, the time is right to make a mental note of these soaps:

Sweet-smelling summer-time deodorant for the whole body

• Up to three ounces* each of dried roses and cassia

• Up to two drachmes* each of black cardamom, costus root and spikenard

• Two ounces* of moistened alum

Dissolve in a fragrant, aged wine, form into pills and dry in the shade. To use: after crumbling and sifting, sprinkle on liberally while bathing and give it a good rub into the body. Rinse thoroughly with cold water.’”

Καταπλάσματα θερινὰ εὐωδίαν ποιοῦντα τῷ παντὶ σώματι Κρίτωνος. ἱδρώτων δ' ἐνοχλούντων τῷ σώματι πολλὴ ἔσται ἡ ἐκ τούτων ἀηδία, καὶ μάλιστα θέρους· καὶ γὰρ πολλὴν ἄσην ἐπιφέρει καὶ δυσωδίαν καὶ διὰ τοῦτο χρηστέον τοῖς ὑπογεγραμμένοις οὐ μόνον ἐπὶ τῶν γυναικῶν ἀλλὰ κἀπὶ τῶν ἀνδρῶν· καιρὸς γὰρ καὶ τούτων μνήμην ποιεῖσθαι σὺν τοῖς σμήγμασι. Καταπαστὸν ὅλου τοῦ σώματος εὐῶδες θερινόν. ῥόδων ξηρῶν κασσίας ἀνὰ Γο γ’ ἀμώμου κόστου ναρδοστάχυος ἀνὰ ⋖ β’ στυπτηρίας ὑγρᾶς Γο β’, οἴνῳ παλαιῷ εὐώδει διαλύσας, ἀνάπλασσε τροχίσκους καὶ ξήραινε ἐν σκιᾷ· ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς χρείας κόψας σήσας δίδου διαπάσσεσθαι λουομένους καὶ ἀνατριβέσθωσαν ἐπιμελῶς καὶ τότε ψυχρῷ ὕδατι περιχείσθωσαν.

Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 8.7, 410,23–411,9 Olivieri

*Units:

1 Γο (ounce) = 27.3 g

1 ⋖ (drachme) = 3.4g

Spells for Walpurgisnacht: Apuleius and Plato on why we should learn magic

“Haven’t you heard—you who are hastily accusing it—that magic is an art approved of by the immortal gods, a profound knowledge of their care and worship, manifestly pious and wise in divine things, noble since the time of its authors, Zoroaster and Ahura Mazda, a celestial high-priestess, which is, in fact, among the first of the royal arts to be taught—and not just anyone among the Persians is allowed to be a magician, any more than anyone is allowed to reign. Plato, too, in a discussion about Zalmoxis, a Thracian and of the same skill as this man (sc. Zoroaster), once wrote: ‘magic spells are beautiful words.’ If this is true, why am I not allowed the beautiful words of Zalmoxis, or the ceremonies of Zoroaster?”

auditisne magiam, qui eam temere accusatis, artem esse dis immortalibus acceptam, colendi eos ac uenerandi pergnaram, piam scilicet et diuini scientem, iam inde a Zoroastre et Oromaze auctoribus suis nobilem, caelitum antistitam, quippe qui inter prima regalia docetur nec ulli temere inter Persas concessum est magum esse, haud magis quam regnare. idem Plato in alia sermocinatione de Zalmoxi quodam Thraci generis, sed eiusdem artis uiro ita scriptum reliquit: τὰς δὲ ἐπῳδὰς εἶναι τοὺς λόγους τοὺς καλούς. quod si ita est, cur mihi nosse non liceat uel Zalmoxi bona uerba uel Zoroastri sacerdotia?

Apuleius, Apologia 26.1

“This, Charmides, is what the nature of the magical spell is like. I learned it back when I was in the army from one of the Thracian doctors of Zalmoxis, who are even said to grant immortality. This Thracian fellow said that Greek doctors may know what they’re talking about when it comes to these things—the things I was discussing just now—, ‘but,’ he said, ‘our king Zalmoxis, who is also a god, says that, just as you shouldn’t try to cure the eye without curing the head, nor the head without the whole body, so you shouldn’t try to heal the body without the soul. And this is the reason the doctors in Greece miss so many diseases: because they neglect the whole that they ought to be concerned about, since if it is not in good shape, it is impossible for the part to be. For everything,’ he said, ‘that is good and bad for the body and for a human being as a whole starts from the soul and flows out from there, as from the head to the eyes, and so if head and the rest of the body are to be in good shape, first and foremost, you need to heal the soul. The soul is cured, my dear friend,’ he said, ‘by a kind of magic spell, and these magic spells are beautiful words. From such words temperance is engendered in the soul, and when it’s engendered and present, then health is easy to bring about, both in the head and in the rest of the body.’”

τοιοῦτον τοίνυν ἐστίν, ὦ Χαρμίδη, καὶ τὸ ταύτης τῆς ἐπῳδῆς. ἔμαθον δ᾽ αὐτὴν ἐγὼ ἐκεῖ ἐπὶ στρατιᾶς παρά τινος τῶν Θρᾳκῶν τῶν Ζαλμόξιδος ἰατρῶν, οἳ λέγονται καὶ ἀπαθανατίζειν. ἔλεγεν δὲ ὁ Θρᾲξ οὗτος ὅτι ταῦτα μὲν ἰατροὶ οἱ Ἕλληνες, ἃ νυνδὴ ἐγὼ ἔλεγον, καλῶς λέγοιεν: ἀλλὰ Ζάλμοξις, ἔφη, λέγει ὁ ἡμέτερος βασιλεύς, θεὸς ὤν, ὅτι ὥσπερ ὀφθαλμοὺς ἄνευ κεφαλῆς οὐ δεῖ ἐπιχειρεῖν ἰᾶσθαι οὐδὲ κεφαλὴν ἄνευ σώματος, οὕτως οὐδὲ σῶμα ἄνευ ψυχῆς, ἀλλὰ τοῦτο καὶ αἴτιον εἴη τοῦ διαφεύγειν τοὺς παρὰ τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ἰατροὺς τὰ πολλὰ νοσήματα, ὅτι τοῦ ὅλου ἀμελοῖεν οὗ δέοι τὴν ἐπιμέλειαν ποιεῖσθαι, οὗ μὴ καλῶς ἔχοντος ἀδύνατον εἴη τὸ μέρος εὖ ἔχειν. πάντα γὰρ ἔφη ἐκ τῆς ψυχῆς ὡρμῆσθαι καὶ τὰ κακὰ καὶ τὰ ἀγαθὰ τῷ σώματι καὶ παντὶ τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ, καὶ ἐκεῖθεν ἐπιρρεῖν ὥσπερ ἐκ τῆς κεφαλῆς ἐπὶ τὰ ὄμματα: δεῖν οὖν ἐκεῖνο καὶ πρῶτον καὶ μάλιστα θεραπεύειν, εἰ μέλλει καὶ τὰ τῆς κεφαλῆς καὶ τὰ τοῦ ἄλλου σώματος καλῶς ἔχειν. θεραπεύεσθαι δὲ τὴν ψυχὴν ἔφη, ὦ μακάριε, ἐπῳδαῖς τισιν, τὰς δ᾽ ἐπῳδὰς ταύτας τοὺς λόγους εἶναι τοὺς καλούς: ἐκ δὲ τῶν τοιούτων λόγων ἐν ταῖς ψυχαῖς σωφροσύνην ἐγγίγνεσθαι, ἧς ἐγγενομένης καὶ παρούσης ῥᾴδιον ἤδη εἶναι τὴν ὑγίειαν καὶ τῇ κεφαλῇ καὶ τῷ ἄλλῳ σώματι πορίζειν.

Plato, Charmides, 156D-157B

Spontaneous Generation: Aristotle on why life is not decay

“Of things that come to be, some come to be by nature, some by art, some spontaneously. But everything that comes to be (1) comes to be by something and (2) comes to be from something and (3) comes to be something.”

Τῶν δὲ γιγνομένων τὰ μὲν φύσει γίγνεται τὰ δὲ τέχνῃ τὰ δὲ ἀπὸ ταὐτομάτου, πάντα δὲ τὰ γιγνόμενα ὑπό τέ τινος γίγνεται καὶ ἔκ τινος καὶ τί.

Aristotle, Metaphysics Ζ 7, 1032a12-4

“When I was young, Cebes, I was wonderfully keen on that wisdom which they call natural history, for I thought it was splendid to know the causes of each thing, why each comes to be and why it perishes and why it is. And often, I would turn myself up and down, looking first into questions like these: do living creatures arise when heat and cold take on a kind of decay, as some people used to say?”

ἐγὼ γάρ, ἔφη, ὦ Κέβης, νέος ὢν θαυμαστῶς ὡς ἐπεθύμησα ταύτης τῆς σοφίας ἣν δὴ καλοῦσι περὶ φύσεως ἱστορίαν: ὑπερήφανος γάρ μοι ἐδόκει εἶναι, εἰδέναι τὰς αἰτίας ἑκάστου, διὰ τί γίγνεται ἕκαστον καὶ διὰ τί ἀπόλλυται καὶ διὰ τί ἔστι. καὶ πολλάκις [96β] ἐμαυτὸν ἄνω κάτω μετέβαλλον σκοπῶν πρῶτον τὰ τοιάδε: ἆρ᾽ ἐπειδὰν τὸ θερμὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρὸν σηπεδόνα τινὰ λάβῃ, ὥς τινες ἔλεγον, τότε δὴ τὰ ζῷα συντρέφεται;

Plato, Phaedo 96a6-b3

“Nothing that is decaying comes to be; rather, what is being concocted does; the process of decay and the thing decaying are residues from what has been concocted. Actually, there isn’t anything that comes to be from the whole (of the material it is made out of), any more than in the case of what has been fashioned by art. For if that were the case, there wouldn’t be any need to produce things. What actually happens is that the useless stuff is removed, in the one case by art, in the other case by nature.

“Animals and plants come to be in earth and in water because in earth there is water, and in water there is pneuma, and in all pneuma, there is psychic heat, and so, in a certain way, all things are full of soul. That’s why they are formed quickly once it has been enveloped.

“When it is enveloped, and when the bodily moisture is heated, it becomes like a frothy bubble. Whether what takes shape is a more or less honourable kind of thing, the difference depends on what envelops the psychic principle. Of this (i.e,. what envelops the psychic principle), the causes are the places and the body which is being enclosed.”

γίγνεται δ' οὐθὲν σηπόμενον ἀλλὰ πεττόμενον· ἡ δὲ σῆψις καὶ τὸ σαπρὸν περίττωμα τοῦ πεφθέντος ἐστίν· οὐθὲν γὰρ ἐκ παντὸς γίγνεται καθάπερ οὐδ' ἐν τοῖς ὑπὸ τῆς τέχνης δημιουργουμένοις – οὐθὲν γὰρ ἂν ἔδει ποιεῖν – νῦν δὲ τὸ μὲν ἡ τέχνη τῶν ἀχρήστων ἀφαιρεῖ, τὸ δ' ἡ φύσις.

Γίγνονται δ' ἐν γῇ καὶ ἐν ὑγρῷ τὰ ζῷα καὶ τὰ φυτὰ διὰ τὸ ἐν γῇ μὲν ὕδωρ ὑπάρχειν ἐν δ' ὕδατι πνεῦμα, ἐν δὲ τούτῳ παντὶ θερμότητα ψυχικήν, ὥστε τρόπον τινὰ πάντα ψυχῆς εἶναι πλήρη· διὸ συνίσταται ταχέως ὁπόταν ἐμπεριληφθῇ.

ἐμπεριλαμβάνεται δὲ καὶ γίγνεται θερμαινομένων τῶν σωματικῶν ὑγρῶν οἷον ἀφρώδης πομφόλυξ. αἱ μὲν οὖν διαφοραὶ τοῦ τιμιώτερον εἶναι τὸ γένος καὶ ἀτιμότερον τὸ συνιστάμενον ἐν τῇ περιλήψει τῆς ἀρχῆς τῆς ψυχικῆς ἐστιν. τούτου δὲ καὶ οἱ τόποι αἴτιοι καὶ τὸ σῶμα τὸ περιλαμβανόμενον.

Aristotle, Generation of Animals, 3.11, 762a13—27

“The cause is similar to that in the case of yeast. For yeast goes from being something small to being big, when the more solid part becomes fluid, and the fluid becomes pneumatized. The psychic heat fashions this in the case of animals, but in the case of the yeast, it is the heat of the humour that was blended with it.”

τὸ δ' αἴτιον παραπλήσιον ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῆς ζύμης· καὶ γὰρ ἡ ζύμη ἐκ μικρᾶς μεγάλη γίγνεται τοῦ μὲν στερεωτέρου ὑγραινομένου τοῦ δ' ὑγροῦ πνευματουμένου. δημιουργεῖ δὲ τοῦτο ἡ τοῦ ψυχικοῦ θερμοῦ φύσις ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις, ἐν δὲ ταῖς ζύμαις ἡ τοῦ χυμοῦ τοῦ συγκραθέντος θερμότης.

Aristotle, Generation of Animals 3.4, 755a14-25

“Don’t get me wrong, I respect them…” — Michael of Ephesus on his colleagues

“I don’t mean to sound divisive and contentious, and I don’t say this with any jealousy towards my colleagues—I swear on my teacher’s soul, which I esteem and worship second only to God. But, honestly, speaking from my experience with the other teachers, some of them are completely dumb. They don’t understand at all the actual words written on the page, never mind their deeper meaning. Sure, some of the slightly more clever ones have sporadic thoughts, but they are way off from establishing the text correctly, while the others just wander at random … I don’t need to get into this. Don’t get me wrong, I respect them and I am fond of them, but since Providence thought it was a good idea, my teacher flew away to heaven, while we, with Providence as our guide and helper, ought to get back to the work that lies before us.”

ταῦτα δὲ λέγω οὐ διαφορᾷ ἢ φιλονεικίᾳ ἢ φθόνῳ τῷ πρὸς τοὺς καθ' ἡμᾶς, οὐ μὰ τὴν ἐκείνου ψυχήν, ἣν ἐγὼ μετὰ θεὸν σέβομαί τε καὶ προσκυνῶ, ἀλλ' ἀληθείᾳ καὶ πείρᾳ τῇ πρὸς τούτους μοι γεγονυίᾳ. οἱ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν παντελῶς εἰσιν ἄφωνοι μηδὲν ὅλως ἐννοοῦντες, τί ποτ' ἐστὶν ὅλως τὰ ἐν τοῖς βιβλίοις γεγραμμένα καὶ τίς ὁ τούτων νοῦς, τινὲς δὲ τῶν χαριεστέρων τῆς μὲν διανοίας ἐφάπτονται σποράδην, τοῦ δὲ τὴν λέξιν καθιστάνειν πόρρω ποι ἀποπλανῶνται, ἄλλοι δ' ἄλλως· περὶ ὧν οὐ δεῖ με λέγειν. πλὴν καὶ τούτους τιμῶ καὶ ἀσπάζομαι, ἀλλ' ἐκεῖνος μέν, ὡς ἔδοξε τῇ προνοίᾳ, ἡμῶν ἀπέπτη, ἡμεῖς δ' ὑπὸ ταύτης χειραγωγούμενοι καὶ βοηθούμενοι ἐπὶ τὸ προκείμενον ἐπανέλθωμεν.

Michael of Ephesus, In parva naturalia commentaria, CAG 22.1, 142,8-142,18 Wendland

Just some drugs made out of poop

“Another recipe for boils and moles. Use pigeon excrement that’s been made smooth with pungent vinegar and be amazed.”

Ἄλλο πρὸς μώλωπας καὶ φακούς. κόπρον περιστερᾶς μετ' ὄξους δριμέος λειώσας χρῶ καὶ θαυμάσεις.

Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 8.10, 414,5–6 Olivieri

“Use for moles: Place pigeon excrement into a linen cloth and burn it completely to ashes. Mix it into a smooth paste with olive oil and don’t be shy when smearing it on. Also, spreading on a paste of perfume-nut works well, as does raw grape hyacinth, by itself or with egg yolk, and either vinegar or honey. Grape hyacinth burnt with bastard-sponge and then smeared on clears away acne.”

χρῶ καὶ πρὸς φακούς· ἢ περιστερᾶς κόπρον εἰς ὀθόνιον βαλών, κατάκαυσον ὡς τεφρωθῆναι καὶ σὺν ἐλαίῳ λεάνας ἐπίχριε θαρρῶν, καὶ μυροβάλανος δὲ λεία ἐπιχριομένη καλῶς ποιεῖ καὶ βολβὸς ὠμὸς καθ' αὑτὸν καὶ σὺν ὠοῦ λεκίθῳ καὶ ὄξει ἢ μέλιτι. κεκαυμένοι δὲ οἱ βολβοὶ μετ' ἀλκυονίου καὶ ἐπιχριόμενοι ἀποκαθαίρουσι τὴν ἔφηλιν.

Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 8.12, 415,15–20 Olivieri

“For all kinds of headache and pain on one side of the face. Well tested. Mix up equal amounts with vinegar: juice of wormwood, juice of ivy, goat excrement, snails cooked with their shells, cooked papyrus, bayberries, grape hyacinth, frankincense, spurge, black ink, saffron ointment, oak gall, cabbage leaves, egg yolk, and mallow. Make into pills and use with vinegar.”

Πρὸς πάσαν κεφαλαλγίαν καὶ ἡμικραίραν διὰ πείρας πολλῆς. ἀψινθίου χυλοῦ κισσοῦ χυλοῦ αἰγὸς κόπρου κοχλίους σὺν τοῖς ὀστράκοις κεκαυμένους χάρτου κεκαυμένου δαφνίδων βολβῶν λιβάνου εὐφορβίου μέλανος γραφικοῦ κροκομάγματος κηκίδων ῥαφάνου φύλλων ὠοῦ τὸ πυρρὸν μαλάχης χυλῷ ἴσα λεάνας ὄξει, ποίει τροχίσκους καὶ χρῶ σὺν ὄξει.

Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 6.50, 194,18-23 Olivieri

“Archigenes’ remedy for canker sores: apply honey mixed with equal amounts of burnt swallow excrement and human excrement. Don't take just any excrement, but feed a child bread with lupins and well-balanced wine for two days, and on the third day take the excrement, dry it and keep it in storage. After grinding it down, use as previously directed. This also works for a sore throat.”

Ἄλλο Ἀρχιγένους πρὸς ἐσχάρας ἐν στόματι. χελιδόνων κεκαυμένων καὶ ἀνθρωπείας κόπρου τὸ ἴσον σὺν μέλιτι διάχριε. λάμβανε δὲ τὴν κόπρον οὐ τὴν τυχοῦσαν, ἀλλὰ παιδίῳ διδοὺς τροφὴν πρὸ ἡμερῶν <β> ἄρτον μετὰ θερμίων καὶ οἶνον σύμμετρον καὶ οὕτως τῇ τρίτῃ τῶν ἡμερῶν λαμβάνων τὴν κόπρον καὶ ξηραίνων ἔχε ἀποκειμένην καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς χρείας λεάνας χρῶ, ὡς προείρηται· ποιεῖ καὶ πρὸς συνάγχας.

Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 8.49, 475,10–16 Olivieri

Spontaneous Generation: fire animals, animals that look like twigs, and mosquitos

“There is a fact common to animals and plants. Some plants come to be from seed, while others come to be spontaneously, when some seed-like principle is formed; and of these, some grow in (lit. ‘get their nourishment from’) the ground, while others emerge inside other plants, as we said in our exposition on plants. In the same way, some animals come to be from animals in accordance with a shared kind of form, while others come to be spontaneously and not from something of the same kind; of these, some come from decaying earth and plants, as happens with many of the insects, while others come to be inside of animals from the residues in their internal organs.”

Κοινὸν μὲν οὖν συμβέβηκε καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ζῴων, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν φυτῶν· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀπὸ σπέρματος ἑτέρων φυτῶν, τὰ δ' αὐτόματα γίνεται, συστάσης τινὸς τοιαύτης ἀρχῆς, καὶ τούτων τὰ μὲν ἐκ τῆς γῆς λαμβάνει τὴν τροφήν, τὰ δ' ἐν ἑτέροις ἐγγίνεται φυτοῖς, ὥσπερ εἴρηται ἐν τῇ θεωρίᾳ τῇ περὶ φυτῶν. Οὕτω καὶ τῶν ζῴων τὰ μὲν ἀπὸ ζῴων γίνεται κατὰ συγγένειαν τῆς μορφῆς, τὰ δ' αὐτόματα καὶ οὐκ ἀπὸ συγγενῶν, καὶ τούτων τὰ μὲν ἐκ γῆς σηπομένης καὶ φυτῶν, ὥσπερ πολλὰ συμβαίνει τῶν ἐντόμων, τὰ δ' ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις αὐτοῖς ἐκ τῶν τοῖς μορίοις περιττωμάτων.

Aristotle, History of Animals 5.1, 539a15-539a25

“At first, the decaying slime itself takes on a white color, then black, and finally blood-red. When this happens, things grow from it that are like very tiny, red wisps of seaweed. At this point in time, they wiggle as they cling to things, then, the ’ascarides’ (as they are called) break loose and swim around in the water. After a few days, they stand straight in the water, motionless and rigid, and then, when the shell breaks off, the mosquito sits on it, until the sun or pneuma causes it to move. Then they fly away. For all the rest of the grubs, too, and all the animals that emerge from grubs, the principle of generation comes to be from the sun or the pneuma.”

Τὸ μὲν οὖν πρῶτον αὐτὴ ἡ ἰλὺς σηπομένη χρῶμα λαμβάνει λευκόν, εἶτα μέλαν, τελευτῶσα δ' αἱματῶδες· ὅταν δὲ τοιαύτη γένηται, φύεται ἐξ αὐτῆς ὥσπερ τὰ φυκία μικρὰ σφόδρα καὶ ἐρυθρά· ταῦτα δὲ χρόνον μέν τινα κινεῖται προσπεφυκότα, ἔπειτ' ἀπορραγέντα φέρεται κατὰ τὸ ὕδωρ, αἱ καλούμεναι ἀσκαρίδες. Μεθ' ἡμέρας δ' ὀλίγας ἵστανται ὀρθαὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ ὕδατος ἀκινητίζουσαι καὶ σκληραί, κἄπειτα περιρραγέντος τοῦ κελύφους ἡ ἐμπὶς ἄνω ἐπικάθηται, ἕως ἂν ἥλιος ἢ πνεῦμα κινήσῃ· τότε δ' ἤδη πέτεται. Πᾶσι δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκώληξι καὶ τοῖς ζῴοις τοῖς ἐκ τῶν σκωλήκων περιρρηγνυμένοις ἡ ἀρχὴ γίνεται τῆς γενέσεως ὑφ' ἡλίου ἢ ὑπὸ πνεύματος.

Aristotle, History of Animals 5.32, 551b29-552a11

“In Cyprus, in places where copper-ore is smelted, with heaps of the ore piled on day after day, an animal is engendered in the fire, somewhat larger than a large fly, furnished with wings, which can hop or crawl through the fire.”

Ἐν δὲ Κύπρῳ, οὗ ἡ χαλκῖτις λίθος καίεται, ἐπὶ πολλὰς ἡμέρας ἐμβαλλόντων, ἐνταῦθα γίνεται θηρία ἐν τῷ πυρί, τῶν μεγάλων μυιῶν μικρόν τι μείζονα, ὑπόπτερα, ἃ διὰ τοῦ πυρὸς πηδᾷ καὶ βαδίζει.

Aristotle, History of Animals 5.19, 552b10-13

“There is a kind of grub, which is called ‘twig-bearer,’ stranger than any animal. Its head projects outside its shell, mottled in colour, and its feet are near the end, as is the case with other grubs, but the rest of its body is encased in a tunic of something like a spider’s web. Around it are tiny dry twigs that seem to have stuck to it as it walked about, but they are fused together with the tunic. Like the shell is to the snail, so is the whole formation to this grub. And it does not fall off, but can be torn off, like natural appendages. And if someone removes the tunic, it dies and becomes as helpless as a snail whose shell was removed. In time, this grub becomes a chrysalis, just like a caterpillar, and then it lives without moving. The winged animal which comes to be from it has not yet been observed.”

Ἔστι δέ τι σκωλήκιον ὃ καλεῖται ξυλοφθόρον, οὐδενὸς ἧττον ἄτοπον τῶν ζῴων. Ἡ μὲν γὰρ κεφαλὴ ἔξω τοῦ κελύφους προέρχεται ποικίλη, καὶ οἱ πόδες ἐπ' ἄκρου, ὥσπερ τοῖς ἄλλοις σκώληξιν, ἐν χιτῶνι δὲ τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα ἀραχνιώδει, καὶ περὶ αὐτὸ κάρφη, ὥστε δοκεῖν προσέχεσθαι βαδίζοντι· ταῦτα δὲ σύμφυτα τῷ χιτῶνί ἐστιν· ὥσπερ κοχλίᾳ τὸ ὄστρακον, οὕτω τὸ ἅπαν τῷ σκώληκι, καὶ οὐκ ἀποπίπτει ἀλλ' ἀποσπᾶται ὥσπερ προσπεφυκότα· καὶ ἐάν τις τὸν χιτῶνα περιέλῃ, ἀποθνήσκει καὶ γίνεται ὁμοίως ἀχρεῖος ὥσπερ ὁ κοχλίας περιαιρεθέντος τοῦ ὀστράκου. Χρόνου δὲ προϊόντος γίνεται καὶ οὗτος ὁ σκώληξ χρυσαλλὶς ὥσπερ αἱ κάμπαι, καὶ ζῇ ἀκινητίζων· ὅ τι δ' ἐξ αὐτοῦ γίνεται τῶν πτερωτῶν ζῴων, οὔπω συνῶπται.

Aristotle, History of Animals 5.32, 557b12-25

Contained within the limits of the stars: the cycles of our common matter

Aristotle on the astral limits of life

“It is reasonable that for everything, the times of gestation, generation and life wish to be measured by natural periods. By a period, I mean day, night, month, year and the times measured by these, and in addition the periods of the moon. The periods of the moon are full moon, new moon and the mid-point of the times in between. For at these points the moon contributes to the sun, and the month is a period shared by them both. The moon is a principle because of its association with the sun and participation in its light. It becomes like another, lesser sun. That’s why it contributes to all processes of generation and completion. For heating and cooling up to a certain proportion produce generation, and after this corruption; and the movements of these stars contain their limits, of both the beginning and the end. For just as we observe that the sea and whatever has the nature of wetness are either at rest or in process of change depending on the movement or stillness of the winds, while the air and the winds depend on the period of the sun and the moon, so too the things that grow from them and are in them necessarily follow them.* For it is in accordance with reason that the periods of the less powerful things follow those of the more powerful. For the winds have a kind of life, as well, both a coming-to-be and a process of decline. Of the revolution of these stars, perhaps they have some other principles. Nature wants, therefore, to count generations and endings by the numbers of the stars, but it can’t do so precisely, because of the indeterminateness of matter and because there are many principles which, since they impede natural generation and corruption, are often causes of things that occur contrary to nature.”

* also the most important differentiae of the matter in spontaneous generation.

εὐλόγως δὲ πάντων οἱ χρόνοι καὶ τῶν κυήσεων καὶ γενέσεων καὶ τῶν βίων μετρεῖσθαι βούλονται κατὰ φύσιν περιόδοις. λέγω δὲ περίοδον ἡμέραν καὶ νύκτα καὶ μῆνα καὶ ἐνιαυτὸν καὶ τοὺς χρόνους τοὺς μετρουμένους τούτοις, ἔτι δὲ τὰς τῆς σελήνης περιόδους. εἰσὶ δὲ περίοδοι σελήνης πανσέληνός τε καὶ φθίσις καὶ τῶν μεταξὺ χρόνων αἱ διχοτομίαι· κατὰ γὰρ ταύτας συμβάλλει πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον· ὁ γὰρ μεὶς κοινὴ περίοδός ἐστιν ἀμφοτέρων. ἔστι δὲ ἡ σελήνη ἀρχὴ διὰ τὴν πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον κοινωνίαν καὶ τὴν μετάληψιν τὴν τοῦ φωτός· γίγνεται γὰρ ὥσπερ ἄλλος ἥλιος ἐλάττων· διὸ συμβάλλεται εἰς πάσας τὰς γενέσεις καὶ τελειώσεις. αἱ γὰρ θερμότητες καὶ ψύξεις μέχρι συμμετρίας τινὸς ποιοῦσι τὰς γενέσεις, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα τὰς φθοράς· τούτων δ' ἔχουσι τὸ πέρας καὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς καὶ τῆς τελευτῆς αἱ τούτων κινήσεις τῶν ἄστρων. ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ θάλατταν καὶ πᾶσαν ὁρῶμεν τὴν τῶν ὑγρῶν φύσιν ἱσταμένην καὶ μεταβάλλουσαν κατὰ τὴν τῶν πνευμάτων κίνησιν καὶ στάσιν, τὸν δ' ἀέρα καὶ τὰ πνεύματα κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἡλίου καὶ τῆς σελήνης περίοδον, οὕτω καὶ τὰ ἐκ τούτων φυόμενα καὶ τὰ ἐν τούτοις ἀκολουθεῖν ἀναγκαῖον· κατὰ λόγον γὰρ ἀκολουθεῖν καὶ τὰς τῶν ἀκυροτέρων περιόδους ταῖς τῶν κυριωτέρων. βίος γάρ τις καὶ πνεύματός ἐστι καὶ γένεσις καὶ φθίσις. τῆς δὲ τῶν ἄστρων τούτων περιφορᾶς τάχ' ἂν ἕτεραί τινες εἶεν ἀρχαί. βούλεται μὲν οὖν ἡ φύσις τοῖς τούτων ἀριθμοῖς ἀριθμεῖν τὰς γενέσεις καὶ τὰς τελευτάς, οὐκ ἀκριβοῖ δὲ διά τε τὴν τῆς ὕλης ἀοριστίαν καὶ διὰ τὸ γίγνεσθαι πολλὰς ἀρχὰς αἳ τὰς γενέσεις τὰς κατὰ φύσιν καὶ τὰς φθορὰς ἐμποδίζουσαι πολλάκις αἴτιαι τῶν παρὰ φύσιν συμπιπτόντων εἰσίν.

Aristotle, Generation of Animals 4.10, 777b16–778a6

Athenaeus of Attalia: late Hellenistic medical elaboration

“From Athenaeus’ works:

‘In the springtime, then, the air is wet and hot, in the summer hot and dry, in the autumn cold and dry, and in the winter wet and cold. Again, in each of the seasons, there are three differences: first, middle and last. Middle times have the purest mixture; the first and last ones are made like the adjacent time. And monthly, the moon produces four differences in the air: the first seven-day period, from new-moon until the seventh, it seems like the spring, moist and hot. The second seven-day period until full moon resembles summer; the third seven day period when the moon is waning is cold and dry; and the fourth and last is cold and wet. And during each day, there are differences of the air. For dawn is wet and hot like the spring. For this reason, the bodies of both healthy and sick persons loosen, so that this period of time is most manageable even for those who are feverish. The middle times of the day are likened to summer, those during the afternoon autumn, and around evening winter. And of night, the first resembles evening, the middle seems like winter, and correspondingly the others.’”

ἐκ τῶν Ἀθηναίου.

«ἐν μὲν οὖν τῇ ἐαρινῇ ὥρᾳ ὑγρὸς καὶ θερμὸς ὁ ἀήρ, ἐν δὲ τῇ θερινῇ θερμὸς καὶ ξηρός, ἐν δὲ τῇ φθινοπωρινῇ ψυχρὸς καὶ ξηρός, ἐν δὲ τῇ χειμερινῇ ὑγρὸς καὶ ψυχρός. πάλιν δὲ ἐν ἑκάστῃ τῶν ὡρῶν τρεῖς διαφοραὶ γίγνονται· πρώτη καὶ μέση καὶ ὑστάτη. τὰ μὲν οὖν μέσα τὴν εἰλικρινεστάτην τῆς ὥρας ἔχει κρᾶσιν· τὰ δὲ πρῶτα καὶ ὕστατα τῇ γειτνιώσῃ ὥρᾳ ἀφομοιοῦνται. καὶ ἡ σελήνη δὲ κατὰ μῆνα ἐργάζεται διαφορὰς δ ἐν τῷ ἀέρι· ἡ μὲν οὖν α ἑβδομὰς ἀπὸ νεομηνίας μέχρι τῆς ζ παρέοικε τῷ ἔαρι ὑγρὰ καὶ θερμή. ἡ δὲ β´ ἑβδομὰς μέχρι πανσελήνου θερινῇ παραπλήσιος· ἡ δὲ τρίτη ἑβδομὰς φθινούσης σελήνης ψυχρὰ καὶ ξηρά· ἡ δὲ τετάρτη καὶ τελευταῖα ψυχρὰ καὶ ὑγρά. καὶ καθ' ἑκάστην δὲ ἡμέραν διαφοραὶ τοῦ ἀέρος γίγνονται· ὁ μὲν γὰρ ὄρθρος ὑγρὸς καὶ θερμὸς ὡς τὸ ἔαρ· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ τὰ σώματα ἀνίεται καὶ τῶν ὑγιαινόντων καὶ τῶν νοσούντων, ὥστε καὶ τοῖς πυρέσσουσιν ὁ καιρὸς οὗτος εὐφορώτατος· τὰ δὲ μέσα τῆς ἡμέρας θέρει παρείκασται, τὰ δὲ κατὰ τὴν δείλην φθινοπώρῳ, τὰ δὲ περὶ ἑσπέραν χειμῶνι καὶ τῆς νυκτὸς δὲ τὰ πρῶτα τῇ ἑσπέρᾳ παρείκασται· τὰ δὲ μέσα χειμῶνι παρέοικε καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ἀκολούθως.»

Aëtius Amidenus, Libri medicinales 3.162 (332,1–17 Olivieri)

Michael of Ephesus restates the obvious

“The moon, he says, is the principle of the month. For having passed the sun after conjunction, it takes its start. In the text, ‘contain their limits, of both the beginning and the end,’ ‘their’ refers to heating and cooling. For the principle and generation of heat is the waxing of the moon and the sun’s approach towards the northern zodiac, while of cold, the waning of the moon and the retreat of the sun towards the south. And as the sea changes according to the motion of the winds, while the winds, as it says in the Meteorology, are generated according to the periods of the sun and the moon, so too the things that come to be out of water and the others, also the things that are in them, necessarily follow the movements of these stars. For fish, oysters, and crustaceans thrive at the waxing moon, but suffer the opposite at the waning of the moon. And the ground sprouts and plants blossom, and animals are vigorous and procreate at the approach of the sun, but pass away at its retreat. And all the others come-to-be with their cycles. But it’s not the right time to talk about them. He says the winds, earth and seas, are less powerful, and the sun, moon, and the rest of the stars are more powerful.”

ἡ δὲ σελήνη, φησίν, ἐστὶν ἀρχὴ τοῦ μηνός· διελθοῦσα γὰρ τὸν ἥλιον μετὰ τὴν σύνοδον ἀρχὴν ὁ μὴν λαμβάνει. ἐν δὲ τῇ λέξει τῇ «τούτων δ' ἔχουσι τὸ πέρας καὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς καὶ τῆς τελευτῆς» τὸ «τούτων» περὶ τῆς θερμότητος καὶ ψυχρότητος εἴρηται. ἀρχὴ μὲν γὰρ καὶ γένεσίς ἐστι θερμότητος ἥ τε τῆς σελήνης αὔξησις καὶ ἡ τοῦ ἡλίου πρὸς τὰ βόρεια ζῴδια προσέλευσις, ψύξεως δ' ἐκείνης μὲν ἡ μείωσις, τοῦ δὲ ἡλίου ἡ πρὸς τὰ νότια ἀναχώρησις. καὶ ὥσπερ ἡ θάλασσα μεταβάλλει κατὰ τὴν τῶν πνευμάτων κίνησιν, τὰ δὲ πνεύματα γίνεται, ὡς ἐν τοῖς Μετεώροις εἴρηται, κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἡλίου καὶ τῆς σελήνης περίοδον, οὕτως καὶ τὰ ἐκ τῶν ὑγρῶν καὶ τῶν ἄλλων γινόμενα καὶ ἐν αὐτοῖς ὄντα ἀκολουθεῖν ἀναγκαῖον τῇ τῶν ἀστέρων τούτων κινήσει. εὐθηνοῦσι μὲν γὰρ ἰχθύες, ὄστρεια, μαλακόστρακα ἐν τῇ αὐξήσει, πάσχει δὲ τοὐναντίον ἐν τῇ μειώσει τῆς σελήνης· καὶ βλαστάνει γῆ καὶ φυτὰ ἀνθεῖ, ζῷα δὲ ἡβᾷ καὶ γεννᾷ τῇ τοῦ ἡλίου προσελεύσει, φθίνει δὲ τῇ τούτου ἀποχωρήσει, καὶ τἆλλα πάντα γίνεται ταῖς τούτων περιόδοις, περὶ ὧν νῦν λέγειν οὐ καιρός. ἀκυρότερα δὲ λέγει πνεύματα, γῆν, θάλασσαν, κυριώτερα δὲ ἥλιον, σελήνην καὶ τοὺς λοιποὺς ἀστέρας.

Michael of Ephesus, Commentary on Aristotle’s Generation of Animals, 210,5–23 Hayduck