Almost Healthy

In Athens, a man contracted itching on his whole body, especially his testicles and his forehead. It was extremely severe. The skin was thick on his whole body and like leprosy in appearance. You couldn't even remove any of the skin because of its thickness. No one was able to help him. Having gone to Melos, however, where there are thermal baths, he was relieved of the itching and the thick skin, but he became dropsical and died.

Ἀθήνῃσιν, ἄνθρωπος ξυσμῷ εἴχετο πᾶν τὸ σῶμα, μάλιστα δὲ τοὺς ὄρχιας καὶ τὸ μέτωπον, εἴχετο δὲ πάνυ σφόδρα, καὶ τὸ δέρμα παχὺ ἦν καθ' ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα, καὶ οἷόν περ λέπρη τὴν πρόσοψιν· καὶ οὐκ ἂν ἀπέλαβες οὐδαμόθεν τοῦ δέρματος ὑπὸ τῆς παχύτητος· τοῦτον οὐδεὶς ἠδύνατο ὠφελῆσαι· διελθὼν δὲ ἐς Μῆλον, ᾗ τὰ θερμὰ λοετρὰ, τοῦ μὲν κνησμοῦ ἐπαύσατο καὶ τῆς παχυδερμίης· ὑδρωπιήσας δὲ ἔθανεν.

Hippocratic Corpus, Epidemics 5.1.9

Eurydamas, in Oineiadai, went mad on the tenth day of a lung inflammation. Once he was treated, he came back to his senses, his saliva became clearer, and the disease took a turn for the better. Then much sleep poured over him, his eyes became jaundiced, and he died near the twentieth day.

Εὐρυδάμας, ἐν Οἰνειάδῃσιν, ἐν περιπλευμονίῃ δεκαταῖος ἤρχετο παρακόπτειν· ἰητρευόμενος δὲ κατενόησέ τε, καὶ τὰ πτύαλα ἐγένετο καθαρώτερα, καὶ προχωρέουσα ἡ νοῦσος ἐπὶ τὸ βέλτιον, ὕπνος τε αὐτέῳ κατεχύθη πουλὺς, καὶ τὰ ὄμματα ἰκτερώδεα ἐγένετο, καὶ ἀπέθανε πρὸς τὰς εἴκοσιν ἡμέρας.

Hippocratic Corpus, Epidemics 5.1.5

Marcellus Sideta On Lycanthropy. A translation of the first account of werewolves.

Marcellus’ On Lycanthropy or Cynanthropy.

Those seized by the disease called cynanthropy or lycanthropy  go out for the whole night in the month of February imitating wolves or dogs in every way, wandering, especially around graveyards, until morning. You can recognize those affected by it through the following signs: they are pale, they look weak, they have dry eyes and they shed no tears. You should see their eyes are hollow, tongue dry and they produce no saliva at all. They are also thirsty and they have incurable wounds on their legs from continuous falls and the bites of dogs.

These are the signs of their condition. One should know that lycanthropy is a form of melancholia, which you will treat at the time of the onset of symptoms by cutting a vein, evacuating the blood to the point of fainting, and having the patient follow a diet of rich food. Let them bathe in sweet water baths, then after you have administered whey from milk for three days, purge using Rufus’, Archigenes’ or Justus’ wonder-drug prepared with colocynth, administering it at intervals two or three times. After purging, theriac from vipers is to be used and the other things mentioned before in the case of melancholia are to be given as well. In the evening, when the disease has already come on, use ointments for the head and those perfumes that cause sleep. Rub the nostrils with opium. Give an occasional hypnotic to drink, as well.

Περὶ λυκανθρωπίας ἤτοι κυνανθρωπίας Μαρκέλλου. οἱ τῇ λεγομένῃ κυνανθρωπίᾳ ἤτοι λυκανθρωπίᾳ νόσῳ κατεχόμενοι κατὰ τὸν Φευρουάριον μῆνα νυκτὸς ἐξίασι τὰ πάντα μιμούμενοι λύκους ἢ κύνας καὶ μέχρις ἡμέρας περὶ τὰ μνήματα μάλιστα διατρίβουσι. γνωρίσεις δὲ τοὺς οὕτω πάσχοντας διὰ τῶνδε· ὠχροὶ τυγχάνουσι καὶ ὁρῶσιν ἀδρανὲς καὶ ξηροὺς τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς ἔχουσι καὶ οὐδὲν δακρύουσι. θεάσῃ δὲ αὐτῶν καὶ κοίλους τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς καὶ γλῶσσαν ξηρὰν καὶ οὐδὲ ὅλως σίελον προχέουσιν. εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ διψώδεις καὶ τὰς κνήμας ἔχουσιν ἡλκωμένας ἀνιάτως διὰ τὰ συνεχῆ πτώματα καὶ τῶν κυνῶν τὰ δήγματα.

τοιαῦτα μὲν αὐτῶν τὰ γνωρίσματα· γινώσκειν δὲ χρὴ μελαγχολίας εἶδος εἶναι τὴν λυκανθρωπίαν, ἣν θεραπεύσεις κατὰ τὸν χρόνον τῆς ἐπισημασίας τέμνων φλέβα καὶ κενῶν τοῦ αἵματος ἄχρι λειποθυμίας καὶ διαιτῶν τὸν κάμνοντα ταῖς εὐχύμοις τροφαῖς. κεχρήσθω δὲ λουτροῖς γλυκέσιν, εἶτα ὀρρῷ γάλακτος χρησάμενος ἐπὶ τρεῖς ἡμέρας κάθαιρε τῇ διὰ τῆς κολυκυνθίδος ἱερᾷ Ῥούφου ἢ Ἀρχιγένους ἢ Ἰούστου, δεύτερον καὶ τρίτον παρέχων ἐκ διαστημάτων. μετὰ δὲ τὰς καθάρσεις καὶ τῇ διὰ τῶν ἐχιδνῶν θηριακῇ χρηστέον. καὶ τὰ ἄλλα παραληπτέον ὅσα ἐπὶ τῆς μελαγχολίας προείρηται. εἰς ἑσπέραν δὲ ἐπερχομένης ἤδη τῆς νόσου τοῖς ὕπνον εἰωθόσιν ἐμποιεῖν ἐπιβρέγμασι τῆς κεφαλῆς χρῆσθαι καὶ ὀσφραντοῖς τοιούτοις καὶ ὀπίῳ διαχρίειν τοὺς μυκτῆρας, ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ ποτίζειν τινὰ τῶν ὑπνωτικῶν.

Marcellus Sideta apud Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 6.11, 151,21­–152,12 Olivieri

Not much is know about Marcellus of Side, except what is recorded in the Suda:

“Marcellus Sideta, doctor at the time of Marcus [Aurelius] Antoninus. He wrote forty-two medical books in epic verse, among which is also On Werewolves.”

Μάρκελλος Σιδήτης, ἰατρός, ἐπὶ Μάρκου Ἀντωνίνου. οὗτος ἔγραψε δι' ἐπῶν ἡρωϊκῶν βιβλία ἰατρικὰ δύο καὶ μ’, ἐν οἷς καὶ περὶ λυκανθρώπου.

Suda μ, entry 205

*The text refers to a drug called “hiera,” which means “sacred.” I am not sure where the name comes from. It might come from the fact that it was used to treat epilepsy, i.e., the sacred disease (ἡ ἱερὰ νόσος), or maybe it contained ingredients considered sacred, or maybe it is a marketing gimmick. From what I’ve read, lots of different drugs are called “hiera,” from plasters to purgatives. See, e.g., Galen, HVA 2.11:

‘Whenever, then, the fever isn't strong, and you have experience with the nature of the patient, you'll arrive at the dose of the purging drug when you use the ones mentioned by Hippocrates or even some other ones that work in similar ways, of which one is [prepared] with colocynth. It is usually called “hiera.”‘

ὅταν οὖν ὁ πυρετὸς ᾖ μὴ σφοδρός, ἔμπειρός τε ᾖς τῆς τοῦ κάμνοντος φύσεως, εἰς τὴν τοῦ καθαίροντος φαρμάκου δόσιν ἀφίξῃ χρώμενος ἤτοι τοῖς ὑφ' Ἱπποκράτους εἰρημένοις ἢ καί τισιν ἄλλοις τῶν ὁμοιοτρόπων, ὧν ἐστι καὶ τὸ διὰ τῆς κολοκυνθίδος, ἱερὰν δ' αὐτὴν συνήθως ὀνομάζουσι.

Galen, In Hippocratis De victu acutorum commentaria, HVA 2.11, 172 Helmreich (15.539 Kühn)

I am translating it as “wonder drug” for fun, but to be honest, I can’t figure out where the name comes from. Justus’ version, a purgative, is preserved by Oribasius. Here it is:

“Justus’ Wonder Drug

• Of colocynth insides, 22 drams

• Of french Lavender, germander, white pepper, black pepper, agaric, black hellebore, scammony, 13 drams each

• Of gum ammoniac, thyme, saffron, spurge, 8 drams each

• Of Myrrh, 4 drams

• Of roasted squill, 16 drams

• (some: of cassia, 4 drams; and of spikenard, 8 drams )

• A sufficient amount of honey”

Ἱερὰ Ἰούστου.

Κολοκυνθίδος ἔντερα 𐅻 κβ’, στοιχάδος, χαμαίδρυος, πεπέρεως λευκοῦ, πεπέρεως μέλανος, ἀγαρικοῦ, ἐλλεβόρου μέλανος, σκαμμωνίας ἀνὰ 𐅻 ιγ’, ἀμμωνιακοῦ, θύμου, κρόκου, εὐφορβίου ἀνὰ 𐅻 η’, σμύρνης 𐅻 δ’, σκίλλης ὀπτῆς 𐅻 ιϛ’ (ἔνιοι κασίας 𐅻 δ’ καὶ ναρδοστάχυος 𐅻 η’), μέλιτος τὸ ἀρκοῦν.

Oribasius, Medical Collections, 8.47.21 (300,8-13 Raeder)

Elderflower Cordial

We went out picking Elderflowers to make cordial to last us through the summer, so I nerded out and dug into my medical sources to see what they had to say about them.

Now, there is a magical side to Elder that Greco-Roman medicine doesn’t talk much about. There is the Elder Mother who protects the tree from those who would harm it. There is the fact that the tree itself protects against witchcraft (or lightning, or caterpillars, depending on who you read). There are also stories that the cross of Jesus of Nazareth was made of Elder wood and that Judas Iscariot hung himself from an Elder tree. There is even a wonderful tradition in Oxfordshire to ‘bleed the elder’ at the King Stone on midsummer eve to commemorate the time when an Elder tree / witch turned an invading Danish King and his army to stone.

In English it is Elder, German Holunder, Ancient Greek ἄκτη, Latin sambucus (as in the drink, sambuca, which doesn’t have Elder in it anymore). For the botanical name, Linnaeus adopted the Latin, and the Latin has an interesting history itself. It derives from the Greek word σαμβύκη (sambuke), the word for some kind of harp made from some kind of wood, which might be Elder, but might not be. The wood of the Elder is hollow, so not the best wood for making string instruments. It is good for wind ones, though, which is why Pliny tells us the sabuci is used by shepherds to make horns or flutes. He also says that the shepherds believe the best wood comes from trees out of earshot of any roosters…

There is a book from 1631 published in Leipzig, written by Dr. Martin Blochwich, called Anatomia Sambuci, Anatomy of the Elder (translated into English by the Royal Society later in the 17th century), which goes over identification, recipes and its use in treatments. The Grimm brothers approach the subject from a different angle in their tale of Frau Holle.

Here are the medical sources on Elder (Sambucus nigra L.). As usual, don’t try these.

Dioscorides

1. Elder—double: for one is something tree-like that has reed-shaped branches, round, whitish and of good length; the leaves, either three or four spaced at intervals around the twig, similar to the walnut, but with a heavy scent and smaller; and at the ends of the branches, round umbels that have white flowers, and fruit resembling terebinth, purple-black, like a grape-bunch, juicy and wine-like.

2. The other one is called ground-elder, but by others marsh-elder. It is smaller and more like an herb, having a square stem with many joints; the leaves, at intervals around each joint, are pinnatifid, similar to almond, but notched around and longer, heavy-scented. The umbel at the end is like that of the one before, also flower and fruit. The root below is long, the width of a finger. The power and use of both are the same: cooling, able to drive out water, certainly bad for the stomach. Boiled like vegetables, the leaves purge phlegm and bile, and the soft stems, taken in a dish, produce the same effects.

3. Also, its root boiled with wine and given along with the routine diet benefits dropsical patients, and its helps those bitten by vipers likewise when drunk. Boiled with water in a sitz bath, it softens and opens up the womb and it straightens out the conditions associated with it. Also, drinking the fruit with wine produces the same effect, and it also dyes hair black when smeared on. New and soft leaves with (a poultice of) barley groats soothe inflammations and are suitable for burns and dog bites when used as a plaster. They also glue together fistulas and they help those with gout when used as a plaster with beef or goat fat.

1. ἀκτῆ · δισσή· ἡ μὲν γάρ τίς ἐστι δενδρώδης, κλάδους καλαμοειδεῖς ἔχουσα, στρογγύλους, ὑπολεύκους, εὐμήκεις· τὰ δὲ φύλλα τρία ἢ τέσσαρα ἐκ διαστημάτων περὶ τὴν ῥάβδον, καρύᾳ βασιλικῇ ὅμοια, βαρύοσμα δὲ καὶ μικρότερα, ἐπ' ἄκρων δὲ τῶν κλάδων σκιάδια περιφερῆ, ἔχοντα ἄνθη λευκά, καρπὸν δὲ ἐοικότα τερεβίνθῳ, ἐν τῷ μέλανι ὑποπόρφυρον, βοτρυώδη, πολύχυλον, οἰνώδη.

2. τὸ δ' ἕτερον αὐτῆς χαμαιάκτη καλεῖται, ὑφ' ὧν δὲ ἕλειος ἀκτῆ· ἐλάττων δὲ καὶ βοτανωδεστέρα, καυλὸν ἔχουσα τετράγωνον, πολυγόνατον· τὰ δὲ φύλλα ἐκ διαστημάτων περὶ ἕκαστον γόνυ τεταρσωμένα, ὅμοια ἀμυγδαλῇ, κεχαραγμένα δὲ κύκλῳ καὶ μακρότερα, βαρύοσμα· σκιάδιον δὲ ἐπ' ἄκρου ὅμοιον τῇ πρὸ αὐτῆς καὶ ἄνθος καὶ καρπός· ῥίζα δ' ὕπεστι μακρά, δακτύλου τὸ πάχος. δύναμις δὲ ἡ αὐτὴ ἀμφοτέρων καὶ χρῆσις, ψυκτική, ὑδραγωγός, κακοστόμαχος μέντοι. ἑψόμενα δὲ τὰ φύλλα ὡς λάχανα καθαίρει φλέγμα καὶ χολήν, καὶ οἱ καυλοὶ δὲ ἁπαλοὶ ἐν λοπάδι ληφθέντες τὰ αὐτὰ ποιοῦσι.

3. καὶ ἡ ῥίζα δὲ αὐτῆς ἑψηθεῖσα σὺν οἴνῳ καὶ διδομένη παρὰ τὴν δίαιταν ὑδρωπικοὺς ὠφελεῖ, βοηθεῖ δὲ καὶ ἐχιδνοδήκτοις ὁμοίως πινομένη· ἀφεψηθεῖσα δὲ μεθ' ὕδατος εἰς ἐγκάθισμα ὑστέραν μαλάσσει καὶ ἀναστομοῖ καὶ διορθοῦται τὰς περὶ αὐτὴν διαθέσεις. καὶ ὁ καρπὸς δὲ σὺν οἴνῳ ποθεὶς τὰ αὐτὰ ποιεῖ, μελαίνει δὲ καὶ τρίχας ἐγχριόμενος. τὰ δὲ φύλλα πρόσφατα καὶ ἁπαλὰ φλεγμονὰς πραΰνει σὺν ἀλφίτῳ καὶ κατακαύμασιν ἁρμόζει καὶ κυνοδήκτοις καταπλασσόμενα· κολλᾷ δὲ <καὶ> ὑποφοράς, καὶ ποδαγρικοῖς βοηθεῖ μετὰ στέατος ταυρείου ἢ τραγείου καταπλασσόμενα.

Dioscorides, On Medical Materials, 4.173

Galen

Elder, the large and tree-like, and the more herb-like one, which they also call ground-elder. Both have a drying and an adhesive and moderately dispersive power.

Ἄκτη ἥ τε μεγάλη καὶ δενδρώδης καὶ ἡ βοτανωδεστέρα, ἥν περ δὴ καὶ χαμαιάκτην ὀνομάζουσιν· ξηραντικῆς ἀμφότεραι δυνάμεώς εἰσι, κολλητικῆς τε καὶ μετρίως διαφορητικῆς.

Galen, On Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs, 6.21

Oribasius

Elder, the tree-like and the ground-elder, both have a drying and an adhesive and moderately dispersive power.

Ἀκτὴ ἥ τε δενδρώδης καὶ ἡ χαμαιάκτη ξηραντικῆς ἀμφότεραι δυνάμεώς εἰσι τῆς κολλητικῆς τε καὶ μετρίως διαφορητικῆς.

Oribasius, Medical Collections, 15.1.1.40

Aetius of Amida

Elder, the large and tree-like, and the one called ground-elder, both have a drying and an adhesive and moderately dispersive power. The decoction of the root when drunk helps dropsical patients.

Ἀκτή, ἥ τε μεγάλη καὶ δενδρώδης καὶ ἡ χαμαιάκτη καλουμένη, ξηραντικῆς ἀμφότεραι δυνάμεως εἰσί, κολλητικῆς τε καὶ μετρίως διαφορητικῆς· ὠφελεῖ δὲ καὶ ὑδρωπικοὺς τὸ ἀφέψημα τῆς ῥίζης πινόμενον.

Aetius of Amida, Medical Books, 1.19

‘Who slept among the heroes of Sardinia’ — Aristotle on time and memory

“But surely, we recognize time whenever, marking by the before and after, we marked a change. And that’s when we say time has passed: when we have grasped in the change a perception of the before and after. We mark them by grasping that one thing is different from another, and a certain interval is different from them. For when we consider the extremes to be different, and the soul says that there are two nows—the one before, the other after—then this we also assert to be time. For what is marked by the now is thought to be time. Let us assume this.”

ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ τὸν χρόνον γε γνωρίζομεν ὅταν ὁρίσωμεν τὴν κίνησιν, τῷ πρότερον καὶ ὕστερον ὁρίζοντες· καὶ τότε φαμὲν γεγονέναι χρόνον, ὅταν τοῦ προτέρου καὶ ὑστέρου ἐν τῇ κινήσει αἴσθησιν λάβωμεν. ὁρίζομεν δὲ τῷ ἄλλο καὶ ἄλλο ὑπολαβεῖν αὐτά, καὶ μεταξύ τι αὐτῶν ἕτερον· ὅταν γὰρ ἕτερα τὰ ἄκρα τοῦ μέσου νοήσωμεν, καὶ δύο εἴπῃ ἡ ψυχὴ τὰ νῦν, τὸ μὲν πρότερον τὸ δ' ὕστερον, τότε καὶ τοῦτό φαμεν εἶναι χρόνον· τὸ γὰρ ὁριζόμενον τῷ νῦν χρόνος εἶναι δοκεῖ· καὶ ὑποκείσθω.

Aristotle, Physics 4.11, 219a22-30

“Memory is neither a perception nor a conception; instead, it is a state or affection of a certain one of them, when time has passed. There is no memory of the now in the now, as we said; rather, perception is of the present, hope of the future, memory of the past. For this reason, all memory follows time. Thus, only those animals which perceive time can remember, and with that by which they perceive.”

ἔστι μὲν οὖν ἡ μνήμη οὔτε αἴσθησις οὔτε ὑπόληψις, ἀλλὰ τούτων τινὸς ἕξις ἢ πάθος, ὅταν γένηται χρόνος. τοῦ δὲ νῦν ἐν τῷ νῦν οὐκ ἔστι μνήμη, καθάπερ εἴρηται [καὶ πρότερον], ἀλλὰ τοῦ μὲν παρόντος αἴσθησις, τοῦ δὲ μέλλοντος ἐλπίς, τοῦ δὲ γενομένου μνήμη· διὸ μετὰ χρόνου πᾶσα μνήμη. ὥσθ' ὅσα χρόνου αἰσθάνεται, ταῦτα μόνα τῶν ζῴων μνημονεύει, καὶ τούτῳ ᾧ αἰσθάνεται.*

Aristotle, On Memory 1, 449b24-30

*note: Aristotle thinks time is something that happens to us, that affects us, like color or taste or touch.

“Neither (is there time) without change: for when we ourselves do not change our state of mind, or when we have not noticed ourselves changing, then time does not seem to us to have passed—just like it does not for those whom the stories tell slept among the Heroes in Sardinia: when they wake up,* they connect the earlier now with the later now and make them one, cutting out the interval. So, just as if the now were not different but one and the same, there would not be time, so, too, when we do not notice a difference, it does not seem that there has been an interval of time.”

Ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδ' ἄνευ γε μεταβολῆς· ὅταν γὰρ μηδὲν αὐτοὶ μεταβάλλωμεν τὴν διάνοιαν ἢ λάθωμεν μεταβάλλοντες, οὐ δοκεῖ ἡμῖν γεγονέναι χρόνος, καθάπερ οὐδὲ τοῖς ἐν Σαρδοῖ μυθολογουμένοις καθεύδειν παρὰ τοῖς ἥρωσιν, ὅταν ἐγερθῶσι· συνάπτουσι γὰρ τῷ πρότερον νῦν τὸ ὕστερον νῦν καὶ ἓν ποιοῦσιν, ἐξαιροῦντες διὰ τὴν ἀναισθησίαν τὸ μεταξύ.* ὥσπερ οὖν εἰ μὴ ἦν ἕτερον τὸ νῦν ἀλλὰ ταὐτὸ καὶ ἕν, οὐκ ἂν ἦν χρόνος, οὕτως καὶ ἐπεὶ λανθάνει ἕτερον ὄν, οὐ δοκεῖ εἶναι τὸ μεταξὺ χρόνος.

Aristotle, Physics 4.11, 218b21-29

*Two versions of the story are told by Ross in his commentary (and what follows is roughly a quotation from him, p. 597). Philoponus says sick people went to the heroes of Sardinia for treatment, slept for five days, which they didn’t remember when they woke up. Simplicius says that nine children born to Heracles died in Sardinia, did not decay, and looked like men asleep. Rohde (Rhein Mus. 35 (1880), pp. 157-163) points out the story’s affinities to legends which represent Alexander the Great, Nero, Charlemagne, Arthur, and Barbarossa as sleeping in the earth until they awake and come to revisit their people.

Aristotle and Solon on acting our natural age

“For the end containing the time of each animal, beyond which there is no time in accordance with nature, has been called the age of each them.”

ὸ γὰρ τέλος τὸ περιέχον τὸν τῆς ἑκάστου ζωῆς χρόνον, οὗ μηθὲν ἔξω κατὰ φύσιν, αἰὼν ἑκάστου κέκληται.

Aristotle, De caelo 1.9, 279a23-30

“At seven years, a child, when he is still young and immature, loses the first set of teeth he has grown. When the god grants him another seven years, the child shows signs of coming puberty. At the third, as the body grows, the chin grows a beard, while the blush of the skin begins to change. At the fourth seven-year period, everyone is at their best in strength, and by it men make a trial of the excellence they have. At the fifth, it is time for a man to be reminded of marriage and to seek for a generation of children to come after him. At the sixth, a man’s mind is training in all things, and likewise he no longer wishes to do foolish things. At the seventh seven-year period, he is best in mind and speech, and at the eighth as well—in all, fourteen years. At the ninth, he is still powerful, but his speech and wisdom are softer in extent of excellence than they were. But if someone, having completed the measure, gets to the tenth (i.e., 70 years), he would not receive the fate of death at the wrong season.”

παῖς μὲν ἄνηβος ἐὼν ἔτι νήπιος ἕρκος ὀδόντων φύσας ἐκβάλλει πρῶτον ἐν ἕπτ' ἔτεσιν. τοὺς δ' ἑτέρους ὅτε δὴ τελέσηι θεὸς ἕπτ' ἐνιαυτούς, ἥβης †δὲ φάνει† σήματα γεινομένης. τῆι τριτάτηι δὲ γένειον ἀεξομένων ἔτι γυίων λαχνοῦται, χροιῆς ἄνθος ἀμειβομένης. τῆι δὲ τετάρτηι πᾶς τις ἐν ἑβδομάδι μέγ' ἄριστος ἰσχύν, ἧι τ' ἄνδρες πείρατ' ἔχουσ' ἀρετῆς. πέμπτηι δ' ὥριον ἄνδρα γάμου μεμνημένον εἶναι καὶ παίδων ζητεῖν εἰσοπίσω γενεήν. τῆι δ' ἕκτηι περὶ πάντα καταρτύεται νόος ἀνδρός, οὐδ' ἔρδειν ἔθ' ὁμῶς ἔργ' ἀπάλαμνα θέλει. ἑπτὰ δὲ νοῦν καὶ γλῶσσαν ἐν ἑβδομάσιν μέγ' ἄριστος ὀκτώ τ'· ἀμφοτέρων τέσσαρα καὶ δέκ' ἔτη. τῆι δ' ἐνάτηι ἔτι μὲν δύναται, μαλακώτερα δ' αὐτοῦ πρὸς μεγάλην ἀρετὴν γλῶσσά τε καὶ σοφίη. τὴν δεκάτην δ' εἴ τις τελέσας κατὰ μέτρον ἵκοιτο, οὐκ ἂν ἄωρος ἐὼν μοῖραν ἔχοι θανάτου.

Solon, fragment 27 West

Spontaneous Generation: Galen and Alexander against the Platonists on why the world soul doesn’t make mosquitos

Stranger: Take animals and all mortal things, and even plants, those which grow from seeds on the earth or those which grow from roots, and those bodies without soul which form in the earth, both the ones that can be melted and the ones that can’t. Surely we are not going to say anything other than divine craftsmanship makes them come to be after previously not being? Or do we consult the saying and opinion of the masses that…

Theaetetus: That what?

Stranger: That nature produces them from some spontaneous cause and without an engendering thought, rather than with reason and divine knowledge that comes from a god?

Ξένος: ζῷα δὴ πάντα θνητά, καὶ δὴ καὶ φυτὰ ὅσα τ᾽ ἐπὶ γῆς ἐκ σπερμάτων καὶ ῥιζῶν φύεται, καὶ ὅσα ἄψυχα ἐν γῇ συνίσταται σώματα τηκτὰ καὶ ἄτηκτα, μῶν ἄλλου τινὸς ἢ θεοῦ δημιουργοῦντος φήσομεν ὕστερον γίγνεσθαι πρότερον οὐκ ὄντα; ἢ τῷ τῶν πολλῶν δόγματι καὶ ῥήματι χρώμενοι—

Θεαίτητος: ποίῳ τῳ;

Ξένος: τὴν φύσιν αὐτὰ γεννᾶν ἀπό τινος αἰτίας αὐτομάτης καὶ ἄνευ διανοίας φυούσης, ἢ μετὰ λόγου τε καὶ ἐπιστήμης θείας ἀπὸ θεοῦ γιγνομένης; [265δ]

Plato, Sophist 265 C-D

“When one of my Platonists teachers told me that the soul-that-is-extended-through-the-whole-cosmos formed the (human) embryo, I thought that the technical skill and power is worthy of it; but, I could not abide thinking that the world-soul formed scorpions, poisonous spiders, flies, conopses, vipers, grubs, worms and ascarides. I take it this kind of opinion comes near impiety. ”

εἰπόντος δέ τινος τῶν διδασκάλων μοι τῶν Πλατωνικῶν, τὴν δι' ὅλου κόσμου ψυχὴν ἐκτεταμένην διαπλάττειν τὰ κυούμενα, τὴν μὲν τέχνην καὶ δύναμιν ἀξίαν ἐκείνης ἐνόμισα, σκορπίους δὲ καὶ φαλάγγια, καὶ μυῖαν καὶ κώνωπας, ἐχίδνας τε καὶ σκώληκας, ἕλμινθάς τε καὶ ἀσκαρίδας ὑπ' ἐκείνης διαπλάττεσθαι νομίζειν οὐχ ὑπέμεινα, πλησίον ἀσεβείας ἥκειν ὑπολαβὼν τὴν τοιαύτην δόξαν.

Galen, On the Formation of the Foetus, 4.700—701 K

“Again, it is possible to discover the existence of a regular order even among evil things and things that come to be contrary to nature, like abscesses, wounds, inflammations, and periodic illnesses. But also the generation of some living things is in fact orderly, without being relative to an Idea, like the generation of grubs, gnats, and grubs.”

ἔτι τὸ εὔτακτον ἔστιν εὑρεῖν καὶ ἐν τοῖς κακοῖς καὶ παρὰ φύσιν γιγνομένοις, οἷον ἀποστήματα, τραύματα, φλεγμοναί, νόσων περίοδοι. ἀλλὰ καὶ ζῴων τινῶν γενέσεις τεταγμέναι μέν, ἀλλ' οὐ πρὸς ἰδέαν, οἷον σκωλήκων, ἐμπίδων, τερηδόνων.

Alexander of Aphrodisias, On Aristotle’s Metaphysics Α, 103,35-104-19 Hayduck

A sweet-smelling, summer-time deodorant from Crito

“Crito’s sweet-smelling, summer-time poultice useful for whole body:

‘When there’s a lot of sweat troubling the body, it is going to be disgusting—especially during the summer-time, since the sweat comes on with a great deal of nausea and stench. That’s why this prescription is not just for women, but for men as well. In fact, the time is right to make a mental note of these soaps:

Sweet-smelling summer-time deodorant for the whole body

• Up to three ounces* each of dried roses and cassia

• Up to two drachmes* each of black cardamom, costus root and spikenard

• Two ounces* of moistened alum

Dissolve in a fragrant, aged wine, form into pills and dry in the shade. To use: after crumbling and sifting, sprinkle on liberally while bathing and give it a good rub into the body. Rinse thoroughly with cold water.’”

Καταπλάσματα θερινὰ εὐωδίαν ποιοῦντα τῷ παντὶ σώματι Κρίτωνος. ἱδρώτων δ' ἐνοχλούντων τῷ σώματι πολλὴ ἔσται ἡ ἐκ τούτων ἀηδία, καὶ μάλιστα θέρους· καὶ γὰρ πολλὴν ἄσην ἐπιφέρει καὶ δυσωδίαν καὶ διὰ τοῦτο χρηστέον τοῖς ὑπογεγραμμένοις οὐ μόνον ἐπὶ τῶν γυναικῶν ἀλλὰ κἀπὶ τῶν ἀνδρῶν· καιρὸς γὰρ καὶ τούτων μνήμην ποιεῖσθαι σὺν τοῖς σμήγμασι. Καταπαστὸν ὅλου τοῦ σώματος εὐῶδες θερινόν. ῥόδων ξηρῶν κασσίας ἀνὰ Γο γ’ ἀμώμου κόστου ναρδοστάχυος ἀνὰ ⋖ β’ στυπτηρίας ὑγρᾶς Γο β’, οἴνῳ παλαιῷ εὐώδει διαλύσας, ἀνάπλασσε τροχίσκους καὶ ξήραινε ἐν σκιᾷ· ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς χρείας κόψας σήσας δίδου διαπάσσεσθαι λουομένους καὶ ἀνατριβέσθωσαν ἐπιμελῶς καὶ τότε ψυχρῷ ὕδατι περιχείσθωσαν.

Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 8.7, 410,23–411,9 Olivieri

*Units:

1 Γο (ounce) = 27.3 g

1 ⋖ (drachme) = 3.4g

Spells for Walpurgisnacht: Apuleius and Plato on why we should learn magic

“Haven’t you heard—you who are hastily accusing it—that magic is an art approved of by the immortal gods, a profound knowledge of their care and worship, manifestly pious and wise in divine things, noble since the time of its authors, Zoroaster and Ahura Mazda, a celestial high-priestess, which is, in fact, among the first of the royal arts to be taught—and not just anyone among the Persians is allowed to be a magician, any more than anyone is allowed to reign. Plato, too, in a discussion about Zalmoxis, a Thracian and of the same skill as this man (sc. Zoroaster), once wrote: ‘magic spells are beautiful words.’ If this is true, why am I not allowed the beautiful words of Zalmoxis, or the ceremonies of Zoroaster?”

auditisne magiam, qui eam temere accusatis, artem esse dis immortalibus acceptam, colendi eos ac uenerandi pergnaram, piam scilicet et diuini scientem, iam inde a Zoroastre et Oromaze auctoribus suis nobilem, caelitum antistitam, quippe qui inter prima regalia docetur nec ulli temere inter Persas concessum est magum esse, haud magis quam regnare. idem Plato in alia sermocinatione de Zalmoxi quodam Thraci generis, sed eiusdem artis uiro ita scriptum reliquit: τὰς δὲ ἐπῳδὰς εἶναι τοὺς λόγους τοὺς καλούς. quod si ita est, cur mihi nosse non liceat uel Zalmoxi bona uerba uel Zoroastri sacerdotia?

Apuleius, Apologia 26.1

“This, Charmides, is what the nature of the magical spell is like. I learned it back when I was in the army from one of the Thracian doctors of Zalmoxis, who are even said to grant immortality. This Thracian fellow said that Greek doctors may know what they’re talking about when it comes to these things—the things I was discussing just now—, ‘but,’ he said, ‘our king Zalmoxis, who is also a god, says that, just as you shouldn’t try to cure the eye without curing the head, nor the head without the whole body, so you shouldn’t try to heal the body without the soul. And this is the reason the doctors in Greece miss so many diseases: because they neglect the whole that they ought to be concerned about, since if it is not in good shape, it is impossible for the part to be. For everything,’ he said, ‘that is good and bad for the body and for a human being as a whole starts from the soul and flows out from there, as from the head to the eyes, and so if head and the rest of the body are to be in good shape, first and foremost, you need to heal the soul. The soul is cured, my dear friend,’ he said, ‘by a kind of magic spell, and these magic spells are beautiful words. From such words temperance is engendered in the soul, and when it’s engendered and present, then health is easy to bring about, both in the head and in the rest of the body.’”

τοιοῦτον τοίνυν ἐστίν, ὦ Χαρμίδη, καὶ τὸ ταύτης τῆς ἐπῳδῆς. ἔμαθον δ᾽ αὐτὴν ἐγὼ ἐκεῖ ἐπὶ στρατιᾶς παρά τινος τῶν Θρᾳκῶν τῶν Ζαλμόξιδος ἰατρῶν, οἳ λέγονται καὶ ἀπαθανατίζειν. ἔλεγεν δὲ ὁ Θρᾲξ οὗτος ὅτι ταῦτα μὲν ἰατροὶ οἱ Ἕλληνες, ἃ νυνδὴ ἐγὼ ἔλεγον, καλῶς λέγοιεν: ἀλλὰ Ζάλμοξις, ἔφη, λέγει ὁ ἡμέτερος βασιλεύς, θεὸς ὤν, ὅτι ὥσπερ ὀφθαλμοὺς ἄνευ κεφαλῆς οὐ δεῖ ἐπιχειρεῖν ἰᾶσθαι οὐδὲ κεφαλὴν ἄνευ σώματος, οὕτως οὐδὲ σῶμα ἄνευ ψυχῆς, ἀλλὰ τοῦτο καὶ αἴτιον εἴη τοῦ διαφεύγειν τοὺς παρὰ τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ἰατροὺς τὰ πολλὰ νοσήματα, ὅτι τοῦ ὅλου ἀμελοῖεν οὗ δέοι τὴν ἐπιμέλειαν ποιεῖσθαι, οὗ μὴ καλῶς ἔχοντος ἀδύνατον εἴη τὸ μέρος εὖ ἔχειν. πάντα γὰρ ἔφη ἐκ τῆς ψυχῆς ὡρμῆσθαι καὶ τὰ κακὰ καὶ τὰ ἀγαθὰ τῷ σώματι καὶ παντὶ τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ, καὶ ἐκεῖθεν ἐπιρρεῖν ὥσπερ ἐκ τῆς κεφαλῆς ἐπὶ τὰ ὄμματα: δεῖν οὖν ἐκεῖνο καὶ πρῶτον καὶ μάλιστα θεραπεύειν, εἰ μέλλει καὶ τὰ τῆς κεφαλῆς καὶ τὰ τοῦ ἄλλου σώματος καλῶς ἔχειν. θεραπεύεσθαι δὲ τὴν ψυχὴν ἔφη, ὦ μακάριε, ἐπῳδαῖς τισιν, τὰς δ᾽ ἐπῳδὰς ταύτας τοὺς λόγους εἶναι τοὺς καλούς: ἐκ δὲ τῶν τοιούτων λόγων ἐν ταῖς ψυχαῖς σωφροσύνην ἐγγίγνεσθαι, ἧς ἐγγενομένης καὶ παρούσης ῥᾴδιον ἤδη εἶναι τὴν ὑγίειαν καὶ τῇ κεφαλῇ καὶ τῷ ἄλλῳ σώματι πορίζειν.

Plato, Charmides, 156D-157B

Spontaneous Generation: Aristotle on why life is not decay

“Of things that come to be, some come to be by nature, some by art, some spontaneously. But everything that comes to be (1) comes to be by something and (2) comes to be from something and (3) comes to be something.”

Τῶν δὲ γιγνομένων τὰ μὲν φύσει γίγνεται τὰ δὲ τέχνῃ τὰ δὲ ἀπὸ ταὐτομάτου, πάντα δὲ τὰ γιγνόμενα ὑπό τέ τινος γίγνεται καὶ ἔκ τινος καὶ τί.

Aristotle, Metaphysics Ζ 7, 1032a12-4

“When I was young, Cebes, I was wonderfully keen on that wisdom which they call natural history, for I thought it was splendid to know the causes of each thing, why each comes to be and why it perishes and why it is. And often, I would turn myself up and down, looking first into questions like these: do living creatures arise when heat and cold take on a kind of decay, as some people used to say?”

ἐγὼ γάρ, ἔφη, ὦ Κέβης, νέος ὢν θαυμαστῶς ὡς ἐπεθύμησα ταύτης τῆς σοφίας ἣν δὴ καλοῦσι περὶ φύσεως ἱστορίαν: ὑπερήφανος γάρ μοι ἐδόκει εἶναι, εἰδέναι τὰς αἰτίας ἑκάστου, διὰ τί γίγνεται ἕκαστον καὶ διὰ τί ἀπόλλυται καὶ διὰ τί ἔστι. καὶ πολλάκις [96β] ἐμαυτὸν ἄνω κάτω μετέβαλλον σκοπῶν πρῶτον τὰ τοιάδε: ἆρ᾽ ἐπειδὰν τὸ θερμὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρὸν σηπεδόνα τινὰ λάβῃ, ὥς τινες ἔλεγον, τότε δὴ τὰ ζῷα συντρέφεται;

Plato, Phaedo 96a6-b3

“Nothing that is decaying comes to be; rather, what is being concocted does; the process of decay and the thing decaying are residues from what has been concocted. Actually, there isn’t anything that comes to be from the whole (of the material it is made out of), any more than in the case of what has been fashioned by art. For if that were the case, there wouldn’t be any need to produce things. What actually happens is that the useless stuff is removed, in the one case by art, in the other case by nature.

“Animals and plants come to be in earth and in water because in earth there is water, and in water there is pneuma, and in all pneuma, there is psychic heat, and so, in a certain way, all things are full of soul. That’s why they are formed quickly once it has been enveloped.

“When it is enveloped, and when the bodily moisture is heated, it becomes like a frothy bubble. Whether what takes shape is a more or less honourable kind of thing, the difference depends on what envelops the psychic principle. Of this (i.e,. what envelops the psychic principle), the causes are the places and the body which is being enclosed.”

γίγνεται δ' οὐθὲν σηπόμενον ἀλλὰ πεττόμενον· ἡ δὲ σῆψις καὶ τὸ σαπρὸν περίττωμα τοῦ πεφθέντος ἐστίν· οὐθὲν γὰρ ἐκ παντὸς γίγνεται καθάπερ οὐδ' ἐν τοῖς ὑπὸ τῆς τέχνης δημιουργουμένοις – οὐθὲν γὰρ ἂν ἔδει ποιεῖν – νῦν δὲ τὸ μὲν ἡ τέχνη τῶν ἀχρήστων ἀφαιρεῖ, τὸ δ' ἡ φύσις.

Γίγνονται δ' ἐν γῇ καὶ ἐν ὑγρῷ τὰ ζῷα καὶ τὰ φυτὰ διὰ τὸ ἐν γῇ μὲν ὕδωρ ὑπάρχειν ἐν δ' ὕδατι πνεῦμα, ἐν δὲ τούτῳ παντὶ θερμότητα ψυχικήν, ὥστε τρόπον τινὰ πάντα ψυχῆς εἶναι πλήρη· διὸ συνίσταται ταχέως ὁπόταν ἐμπεριληφθῇ.

ἐμπεριλαμβάνεται δὲ καὶ γίγνεται θερμαινομένων τῶν σωματικῶν ὑγρῶν οἷον ἀφρώδης πομφόλυξ. αἱ μὲν οὖν διαφοραὶ τοῦ τιμιώτερον εἶναι τὸ γένος καὶ ἀτιμότερον τὸ συνιστάμενον ἐν τῇ περιλήψει τῆς ἀρχῆς τῆς ψυχικῆς ἐστιν. τούτου δὲ καὶ οἱ τόποι αἴτιοι καὶ τὸ σῶμα τὸ περιλαμβανόμενον.

Aristotle, Generation of Animals, 3.11, 762a13—27

“The cause is similar to that in the case of yeast. For yeast goes from being something small to being big, when the more solid part becomes fluid, and the fluid becomes pneumatized. The psychic heat fashions this in the case of animals, but in the case of the yeast, it is the heat of the humour that was blended with it.”

τὸ δ' αἴτιον παραπλήσιον ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῆς ζύμης· καὶ γὰρ ἡ ζύμη ἐκ μικρᾶς μεγάλη γίγνεται τοῦ μὲν στερεωτέρου ὑγραινομένου τοῦ δ' ὑγροῦ πνευματουμένου. δημιουργεῖ δὲ τοῦτο ἡ τοῦ ψυχικοῦ θερμοῦ φύσις ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις, ἐν δὲ ταῖς ζύμαις ἡ τοῦ χυμοῦ τοῦ συγκραθέντος θερμότης.

Aristotle, Generation of Animals 3.4, 755a14-25

“Don’t get me wrong, I respect them…” — Michael of Ephesus on his colleagues

“I don’t mean to sound divisive and contentious, and I don’t say this with any jealousy towards my colleagues—I swear on my teacher’s soul, which I esteem and worship second only to God. But, honestly, speaking from my experience with the other teachers, some of them are completely dumb. They don’t understand at all the actual words written on the page, never mind their deeper meaning. Sure, some of the slightly more clever ones have sporadic thoughts, but they are way off from establishing the text correctly, while the others just wander at random … I don’t need to get into this. Don’t get me wrong, I respect them and I am fond of them, but since Providence thought it was a good idea, my teacher flew away to heaven, while we, with Providence as our guide and helper, ought to get back to the work that lies before us.”

ταῦτα δὲ λέγω οὐ διαφορᾷ ἢ φιλονεικίᾳ ἢ φθόνῳ τῷ πρὸς τοὺς καθ' ἡμᾶς, οὐ μὰ τὴν ἐκείνου ψυχήν, ἣν ἐγὼ μετὰ θεὸν σέβομαί τε καὶ προσκυνῶ, ἀλλ' ἀληθείᾳ καὶ πείρᾳ τῇ πρὸς τούτους μοι γεγονυίᾳ. οἱ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν παντελῶς εἰσιν ἄφωνοι μηδὲν ὅλως ἐννοοῦντες, τί ποτ' ἐστὶν ὅλως τὰ ἐν τοῖς βιβλίοις γεγραμμένα καὶ τίς ὁ τούτων νοῦς, τινὲς δὲ τῶν χαριεστέρων τῆς μὲν διανοίας ἐφάπτονται σποράδην, τοῦ δὲ τὴν λέξιν καθιστάνειν πόρρω ποι ἀποπλανῶνται, ἄλλοι δ' ἄλλως· περὶ ὧν οὐ δεῖ με λέγειν. πλὴν καὶ τούτους τιμῶ καὶ ἀσπάζομαι, ἀλλ' ἐκεῖνος μέν, ὡς ἔδοξε τῇ προνοίᾳ, ἡμῶν ἀπέπτη, ἡμεῖς δ' ὑπὸ ταύτης χειραγωγούμενοι καὶ βοηθούμενοι ἐπὶ τὸ προκείμενον ἐπανέλθωμεν.

Michael of Ephesus, In parva naturalia commentaria, CAG 22.1, 142,8-142,18 Wendland