Shopping with Galen (and a bit on the epistemology of drugs)

With the holiday season approaching, why not check in with Galen for some shopping advice? Here is what he tells his friends to do to get the best drugs from the rhôpopôlai, the street vendors at the market (I’ve posted about them here). As a bonus, Galen tells us what he takes to be his own innovation in quantifying the active powers in drugs, even throwing in a bit of epistemology and some critical remarks against hair-splitting logicians.

Happy holidays ✨🎄⚗

Galen has just talked about where to keep drugs in the house and he’s reminded us not to keep them near the food…

I encourage my friends to copy me in the following way, too, at least if they want to produce their medical products well. You see, every year, in order that those damned hucksters sell me the very best drugs from all over the world, I thoroughly harass them. Maybe it would be better to complain not only to them, but rather to their wholesalers, and even more to the root-cutters themselves—that’s what they’re called, even though they import from the mountains and into the city not just roots, but also saps, juices, fruits, flowers and blossoms. These people are the first of all to adulterate the drugs.

Therefore, whoever wants to get their hands on remedies from anywhere easily needs to acquire experience with every material derived from plants, and every material derived from both animals and metals, and all those earthy bodies distinct from metals which we bring in for medical use, so that one can discern which of them are real and which are fake. After that, one needs to train following my book in which I wrote about the capacities of simple drugs. For if one turns to what is useful in these notebooks without having prepared, while he may go as far as a rational understanding with respect to the method, he won’t produce anything worthy of it.

For suppose someone knows the things which we mentioned before about tendon injuries, but, because of their ignorance, introduces adulterated drugs into the compounds, or doesn’t even know their capacities precisely from the start. Won’t it be necessary that they will more often go wrong than right? To me it seems completely obvious, but precisely knowing the capacities differs a great deal from knowing them. For merely knowing them means recognizing whether the drug naturally dries, moistens, cools or heats us, while precisely knowing means also recognizing, in addition to this, the quantity of the capacity. For some drugs have a capacity such that, when they come into contact with our bodies, it produces a warm heat, while others produce a moderate one only a little bit stronger than the former; and others even boil so strongly that they can burn. Accordingly, the doctor needs to aim to recognize not only the quality of the condition, but also, one might say, the quantity in it.

For, while quantity is clearly not properly said to be something in [the category of] quality,* it is said to be all the same, in the way a fever, too, is said to be big or small. And the practice of speaking in this way is so common that already these terms have the force of proper speech, like [the words] ‘boxwood,’ ‘coppersmith,’ ‘animal-drawer,’ ‘oakcutter,’ and, in short, like terms that started off as instances of what grammarians call catachresis, but ended up being taken to be said properly. I’ve said these things for the people who want to get into discussions about logic at inappropriate times, but what I was saying when they interrupted me is this: what needs to be heated does not simply need to be heated, but heated with an appropriate measure.

*i.e., quality is not predicated of quantity, e.g., three is no more a kind of heat than it is a shade of red.

τοὺς δ’ ἑταίρους προτρέπω καὶ κατὰ τοῦτο μιμήσεσθαί με βουλομένους γε καλῶς ἐργάζεσθαι τὰ τῆς τέχνης ἔργα. γιγνώσκετε γὰρ, ὅπως ἐξ ἑκάστου τῶν ἐθνῶν τὰ κάλλιστά μοι διακομίζεται καθ’ ἕκαστον ἔτος φάρμακα διὰ τὸ τοὺς ἐπιτρίπτους ῥωποπώλας, παντοίως αὐτοῖς λυμαίνεσθαι. βέλτιον δ’ ἴσως οὐ τούτους μόνους, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον αὐτῶν τοὺς κομίζοντας ἐμπόρους μέμφεσθαι, κᾀκείνων ἔτι μᾶλλον αὐτοὺς τοὺς ῥιζοτόμους μὲν ὀνομαζομένους, οὐδὲνδ’ ἧττον τῶν ῥιζῶν ὀπούς τε καὶ χυλοὺς καὶ καρποὺς, ἄνθη τε καὶ βλάστας ἐκ τῶν ὀρῶν κατακομίζοντας εἰς τὰς πόλεις· οὗτοι γάρ εἰσιν οἱ πρῶτοι πάντων εἰς αὐτὰ πανουργοῦντες.

ὅστις οὖν βούλεται πανταχόθεν βοηθημάτων εὐπορεῖν, ἔμπειρος γενέσθω πάσης μὲν τῆς ἀπὸ τῶν φυτῶν ὕλης, πάσης δὲ τῆς ἀπὸ τῶν ζώων τε καὶ μετάλλων, ὅσα τε γεώδη σώματα χωρὶς μεταλλείας εἰς ἰατρικὴν χρῆσιν ἄγομεν, ὡς διαγινώσκειν αὐτῶν τά τε ἀκριβῆ καὶ τὰ νόθα, καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο γυμνασάσθω κατὰ τὴν ἐμὴν πραγματείαν, ἐν ᾗ περὶ τῆς δυνάμεως ἔγραψα τῶν ἁπλῶν φαρμάκων. εἰ μὴ γὰρ οὕτως παρεσκευασμένος ἥκει πρὸς τὴν ἐκ τῶνδε τῶν ὑπομνημάτων ὠφέλειαν, ἄχρι λόγου μὲν εἴσεται τὴν μέθοδον, ἔργον δ’ οὐδὲν ἄξιον αὐτῆς ἐργάσεται.

φέρε γὰρ αὐτὰ μὲν ἃ προείρηκα περὶ τῶν νευροτρώτων ἐπίστασθαί τινα, δεδολωμένα δὲ φάρμακα δι’ ἄγνοιαν ἐμβάλλειν τοῖς συντιθεμένοις, ἢ μηδὲ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐπίστασθαι τὰς δυνάμεις ἀκριβῶς αὐτῶν, ἆρα οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον ἔσται πλεονάκις τοῦτον διαμαρτάνειν ἢ κατορθοῦν; ἐμοὶ μὲν καὶ πάνυ δοκεῖ. τὸ δὲ ἀκριβῶς ἐπίστασθαι τὰς δυνάμεις τοῦ μὲν ἐπίστασθαι διαφέρει πάμπολυ. τὸ μὲν γὰρ μόνον ἐπίστασθαι γινώσκειν ἐστὶν, εἰ ξηραίνειν τὸ φάρμακον ἢ ὑγραίνειν ἢ ψύχειν ἢ θερμαίνειν ἡμᾶς πέφυκε. τὸ δ’ ἀκριβῶς ἐπίστασθαι πρὸς τούτῳ καὶ τὸ ποσὸν τῆς δυνάμεώς ἐστιν ἐγνωκέναι. τινὰ μὲν γὰρ φάρμακα δύναμιν ἔχει χλιαρᾶς θερμασίας γεννητικὴν, ὅταν ὁμιλήσῃ τοῖς σώμασιν ἡμῶν, ἔνια δὲ συμμέτρου, καθάπερ ἄλλα βραχὺ ταύτης ἰσχυρότερα, ἕτερα δ’ ἤδη ζεούσης οὕτως ἰσχυρῶς, ὡς καίειν δύνασθαι. χρὴ τοίνυν τὸν ἰατρὸν ἐστοχάσθαι, μὴ μόνον τοῦ ποιοῦ τῆς διαθέσεως, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῦ κατ’ αὐτὴν ὡς ἂν εἴποι τις ποσοῦ.

λέγεται μὲν γὰρ οὐ πάνυ τι κυρίως τὸ ποσὸν ἐν τῇ ποιότητι. λέγεται δ' οὖν ὅμως, ὅπως καὶ πυρετὸς μέγας καὶ μικρός. καὶ τοσαύτη γε χρῆσίς ἐστι τῶν οὕτω λεγομένων, ὥστ' ἤδη κυρίου δύναμιν ἔχειν αὐτὰ παραπλησίως πυξίδι καὶ χαλκεῖ καὶ ζωγράφῳ καὶ δρυοτόμῳ καὶ συνελόντι φάναι τοῖς ἀρξαμένοις μὲν ἐκ τῆς ὑπὸ τῶν γραμματικῶν ὀνομαζομένης καταχρήσεως, ὕστερον δὲ κυρίοις λέγεσθαι πεπιστευμένοις. ταῦτα μὲν εἴρηταί μοι διὰ τοὺς οὐκ ἐν καιρῷ διαλεκτικευομένους. ὃ δὲ λέγων ἀπέλιπεν ἔστι τοιόνδε, ὅτι τὸ ξηραίνεσθαι δεόμενον οὐχ ἁπλῶς δεῖται τοῦ ξηραίνοντος, ἀλλὰ σὺν τῷ προσήκοντι μέτρῳ.

Galen, On Compound Drugs by Kind (Comp. Med. Gen.) 3.2, 13.570–573 K.

More dream spells

A Dream-Sender. Make a hollow hippopotamus out of red wax. Into this hippopotamus’* belly, place gold, silver and the ‘Ballatha’ of the Jews. Dress it in clean linen and set it on a clean windowsill. Then, take a piece of hieratic papyrus and with myrrh-ink and the blood of a baboon write on it what you want to send. Roll it up into a wick and use it to light a new, clean lamp. Put the foot of the hippopotamus onto the lamp, say the name, and it sends the dream.

ὀνειροπομπόν· ποίησον ἱπποπόταμον ἐκ κηροῦ πυρροῦ κοῖλον καὶ ἔνθες εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν αὐτοῦ τοῦ βιεβετνεησι καὶ χρυσὸν καὶ ἄργυρον καὶ τὸ καλούμενον βαλλαθὰ τὸ τῶν Ἰουδαίων καὶ στόλισον αὐτὸν λίνῳ καθαρῷ καὶ θὲς ἐπὶ θυρίδος καθαρᾶς καὶ λαβὼν χάρτην ἱερατικὸν γράψον εἰς αὐτὸν ζμυρνομέλανι καὶ αἵματι κυνοκεφάλου, ἃ βούλει πέμψαι, καὶ εἰλήσας εἰς ἐνλύχνιον καὶ ἐνλυχνιάσας λύχνον καθαρὸν καινὸν ἐπίθες ἐπὶ τὸν λύχνον τὸν πόδα ἱπποποταμίου καὶ λέγε τὸ ὄνομα, καὶ πέμπει.

PGM XIII, col. vii 47 - viii 7 (lines 312-319)

*alternatively, going with what comes next, ‘from the metals of the miners’, following a note in the scanned copy at Heidelberg. See right: βιεβεσνεητι “Metall des Erzarbeiter”, but I cannot make out the reference.

Before we begin: Oribasius’ Medical Collections

I’ve lately been into scientific prefaces. I think how a writer introduces their work gives us a way of testing our own expectations for what a treatise on a particular subject should look like, especially since what we think an author is saying they are going to do and what they end up doing often don’t match up. This mismatch is useful for asking questions about how scientific writing, teaching, practice and innovation interact, and how they relate to conventions of authority, culture and tradition.

Today, I went to a talk by Christine Salazar about Byzantine medical compilations and their relationship to Galen. Christine emphasized the different approaches the major compilers had to Galen’s work, and from her talk, what stuck out is how complex a tool authority was in promoting and disseminating ancient scientific doctrines. Lots has been written on the topic, and I won’t pretend to present a very subtle analysis. But, when a particular figure like Galen is mentioned as an authority, it tells us a lot more than, e.g., Galen was respected as physician, that people agreed with his methods and trusted his conclusions, or that he was in some positivistic way the culmination of what came before. It tells us something about how later authors see themselves, both in relation to their immediate audience and to posterity. Mentioning an authority is a lot different from accepting that authority’s methods and conclusions; and the conventions and standards around appeals to authority no doubt vary both from author to author and among scientific communities. When Oribasius says he thinks Galen’s methods and definitions are the most accurate, there are many ways to understand his motivations for doing so, and, I think, lots of reasons to question just what such an endorsement means. We need to read Oribasius to find out how committed he is to these ideas in practice, what authority might mean for him, and what other, less authoritative, sources might be in the background.

Oribasius, Medical Collections, I, preface

Regarding the epitomes ordered by your Divinity, Emperor Julian, I completed them some time ago when we were engaged out west in Gaul. As you requested, I produced them solely from the books written by Galen. Since you were happy with them, you ordered me to perform a second task, that I should search through the most important works of the best doctors and collect everything useful for the true end of medicine. This I decided to do eagerly and as best I could, since I believe a collection like this will be extremely useful, as those who consult it will readily find in each case what is beneficial to those in need. But, I considered it superfluous and altogether naive to write down the same things over and over as they are found in both the best writers and those who did not achieve a similar level of accuracy. And so, I will collect only what was rather well said, omitting from the arrangement of topics nothing which Galen alone was the first to mention. He is superior to all those who have written on the same subjects, since he uses the most accurate methods and definitions and follows Hippocratic principles and opinions. In this book, I will use the following arrangement of topics: first, I will collect things from the material part; next, whatever was said about the nature and structure of humans; after that, things from the subject of hygiene and restorative; and after these, whatever has to do with the theories of diagnostic and prognostic; after which, things which concern the improvement of diseases, symptoms and generally what is in contrary to nature. I will start with selections about the capacities in foods.

τὰς προσταχθείσας ἐπιτομὰς παρὰ τῆς σῆς Θειότητος, αὐτόκρατορ Ἰουλιανέ, πρότερον, ἡνίκα διετρίβομεν ἐν Γαλατίᾳ τῇ πρὸς ἑσπέραν, εἰς τέλος ἤγαγον, καθὼς ἠβουλήθης, ἅστινας ἐκ μόνων τῶν ὑπὸ Γαληνοῦ γραφέντων ἐποιησάμην. ἐπεὶ δ' ἐπαινέσας ταύτας δευτέραν ἐπέταξας πρᾶξιν, πάντων τῶν ἀρίστων ἰατρῶν ἀναζητήσαντά με τὰ καιριώτατα συναγαγεῖν καὶ πάντα ὅσα χρησιμεύει πρὸς αὐτὸ τὸ τέλος τῆς ἰατρικῆς, καὶ τοῦτο πράττειν, ὡς οἷός τέ εἰμι, προθύμως διέγνωκα, χρησιμωτάτην ὑπολαμβάνων ἔσεσθαι τὴν τοιαύτην συναγωγήν, τῶν ἐντυγχανόντων ἑτοίμως ἐξευρισκόντων τὸ ἑκάστοτε τοῖς δεομένοις ὠφέλιμον. περιττὸν δὲ νομίσας εἶναι καὶ παντελῶς εὔηθες τὸ ἐγγράφειν τὰ αὐτὰ πολλάκις, καὶ τῶν ἄριστα συγγραψάντων καὶ τῶν μὴ ὁμοίως τὸ ἀκριβὲς ἐξεργασαμένων, μόνα τὰ τῶν ἄμεινον εἰπόντων συνάξω, <τὰ> πάλαι Γαληνῷ μόνῳ ῥηθέντα, μηδὲν παραλιπὼν τάξεως, καθότι τῶν συγγραψάντων ἁπάντων εἰς τὰς αὐτὰς ὑποθέσεις αὐτὸς κρατεῖ, μεθόδοις καὶ διορισμοῖς τοῖς ἀκριβεστάτοις χρώμενος, ταῖς Ἱπποκρατείοις ἀρχαῖς καὶ δόξαις ἐξακολουθῶν. χρήσομαι δὲ κἀνταῦθα τοιαύτῃ τινὶ τάξει· καὶ πρῶτον μὲν οὖν συνάξω τὰ τοῦ ὑλικοῦ μέρους, εἶθ' ὅσα περὶ φύσεως καὶ κατασκευῆς εἴρηται τἀνθρώπου, μεθ' ἃ τὰ τῆς ὑγιεινῆς καὶ ἀναληπτικῆς πραγματείας, καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα ὅσα τῆς διαγνωστικῆς καὶ προγνωστικῆς ἔχεται θεωρίας, ἐφ' οἷς τὰ περὶ τῆς τῶν νοσημάτων καὶ συμπτωμάτων καὶ ὅλως τῆς τῶν παρὰ φύσιν ἐπανορθώσεως· ἄρξομαι δ' ἀπὸ τῶν περὶ τῶν ἐν ταῖς τροφαῖς δυνάμεων.

Oribasius, Collectiones medicae, I. pr., 4,3–24 Raeder

Galen rants against Chrysippus because he’s a immigrant

As part of a project at the Einstein Centre Chronoi on time and ancient medicine, Peter N. Singer, Orly Lewis and I have been reading through Galen’s writings on the pulse. We came across a passage where Galen goes on a racist rant against the philosopher, Chrysippus. Galen tells us that Chrysippus moved to Athens from the town of Soli in Cilicia (in modern day Turkey), and for that reason, has no business using Attic Greek in novel ways. Galen seems to be alluding to (and rejecting) a hypothetical defence of Chrysippus’ language, one based on a story that must have been making the rounds. The story is an attempt to give the etymology of the word “solecise”. It claims that the citizens of Soli, a town supposedly founded by Solon, the legendary Athenian ruler, originally spoke Attic, but over time, spoke a corrupted dialect. Here is how Diogenes Laertius tells it:

When he (sc. Solon) left that place, he arrived in Cilicia and founded a city, which he called Soli after himself. And he settled a few Athenians there, who over time corrupted the language and were said to “solecise.”

ἐκεῖθέν τε ἀπαλλαγεὶς ἐγένετο ἐν Κιλικίᾳ, καὶ πόλιν συνῴκισεν ἣν ἀπ᾽ αὐτοῦ Σόλους ἐκάλεσεν: ὀλίγους τέ τινας τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἐγκατῴκισεν, οἳ τῷ χρόνῳ τὴν φωνὴν ἀποξενωθέντες σολοικίζειν ἐλέχθησαν.

Diog. Laert. 1.51

Here is Galen:

For among other things, [the Pneumatist] school also claims that you should betray your state more quickly than you betray your beliefs. But if you keep quiet while they are making decrees and you don’t say anything in opposition, and then allow them to discuss something, they immediately blurt out something contrary to their own decree. This is very much in line with the forefather of their sect, Chrysippus. For he makes decrees about terminology more than Solon set down laws for the Athenians to write on their wooden tablets. He’s the one who first confused these things, and when you ask his successors who follow his decrees, ‘why on earth isn’t he consistent with his own edicts?’, they say, ‘he is speaking loosely.’ ‘Well then, my my fine fellows, is it possible for people to speak loosely without falling into error by doing so?’ ‘It’s possible,’ they say, since what else could they say when they are, as the saying goes, trapped in a well? Well, why on earth don’t they allow other people [to speak loosely]? Or is it only possible for Chrysippus and his followers to do so? By the gods, why? Because, obviously, he was from the race of Atticans, from the line of Kodros and Erechtheus. But if he really was from this race, then he would not have debased, so to speak, the currency of the customary language of their ancestors. And in fact, the worst thing is that Chrysippus wasn’t born in Athens and wasn’t raised there. Instead, he shows up, fresh off the boat from Cilicia, and before he properly learns any Greek, he makes decrees to the Athenians about terminology, like “the jay imitating the siren”—as if I should say a jay, rather than a jackdaw, or a crow, or another more appropriate word to use for someone so shameless.

τά τε γὰρ ἄλλα καὶ ἡ αἵρεσις αὐτῶν θᾶττον πόλιν ἢ δόγμα φησὶ χρῆναι προδιδόναι, ἀλλ' ἐὰν σιωπήσῃς νομοθετούντων καὶ μηδόλως ἀντείπης, εἶτ' ἐπιτρέψῃς περί τινος διαλέγεσθαι, παραχρῆμα ταῖς ἑαυτῶν νομοθεσίαις ἐναντία φθέγγονται. πολὺ δὲ τοῦτ' ἔστι παρὰ τῷ προπάππῳ τῆς αἱρέσεως αὐτῶν Χρυσίππῳ. νομοθετεῖ μὲν γὰρ ὀνόματα πλεῖον ἢ Σόλων Ἀθηναίοις ἱστᾷν τοῖς ἄξοσι νομίσματα. συγχεῖ δ' αὐτὸς πρῶτος αὐτά. καὶ εἰ ἔροιο τοὺς διαδόχους αὐτοῦ τῆς νομοθεσίας, τί δή ποτε οὐκ ἐμμένει τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ παραγγέλμασι, καταχρῆται, φασίν. ἔξεστιν οὖν, ὦ βέλτιστοι, καταχρῆσθαι, καὶ οὐχ ἁμαρτάνουσιν οἱ τοῦτο ποιοῦντες; ἔξεστι, φασί. τί γὰρ ἄλλο εἰπεῖν ἔχουσιν, ὅταν ἐν φρέατι, τοῦτο δὴ τὸ τοῦ λόγου, συσχεθῶσι; τί δή ποτ' οὖν τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀνθρώποις οὐκ ἐπιτρέπουσιν; ἢ μόνῳ Χρυσίππῳ καὶ τοῖς ἀπ' αὐτοῦ τοῦτο δρᾷν ἔξεστι; διὰ τί πρὸς τῶν θεῶν; ὅτι δηλαδὴ γηγενὴς Ἀττικὸς ἦν τῶν ἀμφὶ Κόδρον τε καὶ Ἐρεχθέα. ἀλλ' εἰ τῶν τοιούτων ὄντως ἦν, οὐκ ἂν παρεχάραττεν οἷον νόμισμά τι τὸ τῆς παλαιᾶς φωνῆς ἔθος. νυνὶ δὲ τὸ δεινότατον οὔτε γεννηθεὶς Ἀθήνῃσιν οὔτε τραφεὶς, ἀλλὰ χθὲς καὶ πρώτως ἥκων ἐκ Κιλικίας, πρὶν ἀκριβῶς αὐτὸν ἐκμαθεῖν ἡντιναοῦν Ἑλλάδα φωνὴν, Ἀθηναίοις ὑπὲρ ὀνομάτων ἐπιχειρεῖ νομοθετεῖν ἃ κίττα τὰν σειρῆνα μιμουμένα, ἵνα κίτταν εἴπωμεν, μὴ κολοιὸν, μηδὲ κόρακα, μηδ' ἄλλο μηδὲν ὧν οἰκειότερον ἦν εἰπεῖν τὸν οὕτω θρασύν.

Galen, De differentia pulsuum, 2.10 (8.630-8.632 Kühn)

Alternative Medicine (or: Three Conversions)

Plutarch (?) on Cleomenes I

Once, Cleomenes contracted a long illness and he started paying attention to practitioners of purification rites and to seers, having paid no attention to them before. When someone expressed surprise, he said, “Why are you surprised? For I’m not the same man I was then, and, since I’m not the same man, I don’t choose the same things.”

Ἑλκυσθεὶς δὲ νόσῳ μακρᾷ, ἐπεὶ καθαρταῖς καὶ μάντεσι προσεῖχε τὸ πρὶν οὐ προσέχων, θαυμάζοντός τινος, ‘τί θαυμάζεις;’ ἔφη ‘οὐ γάρ εἰμι ὁ αὐτὸς νῦν καὶ τότε· οὐκ ὢν δὲ ὁ αὐτὸς οὐδὲ τὰ αὐτὰ δοκιμάζω.’

Plutarch, Moralia 223E

Theophrastus on Pericles

In his Ethics, Theophrastus mentions an anecdote while going over the problem whether character is bent by fortune and gives up on virtue when moved by the body’s sufferings. He says that when Pericles was sick and one of his friends had come to check in on him, he showed to him an amulet that had been hung around his neck by certain women—that’s how bad a state he was in, that he would give in to that silliness.

ὁ γοῦν Θεόφραστος ἐν τοῖς Ἠθικοῖς διαπορήσας εἰ πρὸς τὰς τύχας τρέπεται τὰ ἤθη καὶ κινούμενα τοῖς τῶν σωμάτων πάθεσιν ἐξίσταται τῆς ἀρετῆς, ἱστόρηκεν ὅτι νοσῶν ὁ Περικλῆς ἐπισκοπουμένῳ τινὶ τῶν φίλων δείξειε περίαπτον ὑπὸ τῶν γυναικῶν τῷ τραχήλῳ περιηρτημένον, ὡς σφόδρα κακῶς ἔχων ὁπότε καὶ ταύτην ὑπομένοι τὴν ἀβελτερίαν.

Plutarch, Pericles 38.2

Diogenes Laertius on Bion

Bion often used to make rather atheist proclamations in conversation, since he enjoyed this Theodorean habit.* Some time later—so the people in Chalcis relate, since that’s where he died—he fell ill and was persuaded to wear an amulet and to repent his offences against the divine.

πολλὰ δὲ καὶ ἀθεώτερον προεφέρετο τοῖς ὁμιλοῦσι, τοῦτο Θεοδώρειον ἀπολαύσας. καὶ ὕστερόν ποτε ἐμπεσὼν εἰς νόσον, ὡς ἔφασκον οἱ ἐν Χαλκίδι — αὐτόθι γὰρ καὶ κατέστρεψε — περίαπτα λαβεῖν ἐπείσθη καὶ μεταγινώσκειν ἐφ’ οἷς ἐπλημμέλησεν εἰς τὸ θεῖον.

Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, 4.54

*Theodorus the Atheist, a Cyrenaic philosopher of the 4th/3rd century.

Dream spells

Here are some dream spells from the collection of magical Greek papyri: one in case you want someone else to have a dream, one in case you want to have a dream.

“If you wish to appear to someone in dreams during the night, say to the lamp that gets used every day, say to it often: Cheiamôpsei, Erpebôth: Let so-and-so, daughter of so-and-so, see me in her dreams, now, now, quickly, quickly. Then the usual, whatever you’d like.”

Ἐάν τινι ἐθέλῃς [ἐ]μφανῆναι διὰ νυκτὸς ἐν ὀνείροις, λέγε πρὸς τὸν λύχνον τὸν καθημερινόν, λέγε πολλάκις· ‘χειαμωψει: ερπεβωθ: ἰδέτω με ἡ δεῖνα, ἣν ἡ δεῖνα, ἐν τοῖς ὕπνοις, ἤδη ἤδη, ταχὺ ταχύ.’ καὶ κοινά, ὅσ’ ἂν βούλῃ.

PGM VII 405-411

“Request for a dream. Draw the god Hermes, upright and Ibis-faced, as accurately as possible on a scrap of linen cloth using quail’s blood, then, using myrrh, write his name above and say the words: Come to me, here, quickly, you who have the power. I call to you, the god of gods who is set over the spirits, to show me this in my dreams. By your father Osiris and Isis, your mother, I summon you to show me some image of you and reveal what I wish to know. By your name, Êiiouathi, Psrêpnousa Nertêr, Diokhasbara, Zarakhô, whom they call Balkham, reveal this, reveal everything that I ask.”

Ὀνείρου αἴτησις· Ἀκριβὴς εἰς πάντα γράψον εἰς βύσσινον ῥάκος αἵματι ὀρτυγίου θεὸν Ἑ[ρ]μῆν ὀρ[θ]όν, ἰβιοπρόσωπον, ἔπειτα ζμύρνῃ ἐπίγραψον καὶ τὸ ὄνομα καὶ ἐπίλεγε τὸν [λό]γον· ‘ἔρχου μοι ὡδὶ αἶψα, ὁ ἔχων τὴν ἐξουσίαν. ἐπικαλοῦμαί σε τὸν ἐπὶ τῶν [πν]ευμάτων τεταγμένον θεὸν θ(εῶν), δεῖξαί μοι καθ’ ὕπνους τόδε. ἐξορκίζω [σε]κατὰ [τ]οῦ πατρός σου Ὀσίριδος καὶ Ἴσιδος, τῆς μητρός σου, δεῖξαί μοί τι[να] μορφήν σου, καὶ περὶ ὧν θέλω, χρημάτισον. ὄνομά σοι· ‘ηιιουαθι, ψρηπνου̣α̣ νερτηρ, διοχασβαρα, Ζαραχω’, ὃν καλοῦσι Βαλχάμ· χρημάτισον περὶ τοῦδε, περ[ὶ π]άντων, <ὧν> πυνθάνω.’

PGM XII  144-152

Why you probably shouldn’t invite Democritus to your dinner party

Dinner parties can be dull, even in ancient Greece. Democritus’ solution was to prank the hosts, eat lots of garlic, and try to sleep with everyone. No wonder he was called the laughing philosopher.

Here is all of his advice, some of it terrible (find the introvert, rub honey on their face, and tell them to lighten up), some not so bad (a cure for garlic breath), some that uses language I wouldn’t have expected (βινεῖν, στύειν, words discussed by sententiae antiquae). It’s almost certainly not by Democritus; still, it says something about how people might have imagined a night like this would go.

The text is included in the collection of Greek Magical Papyri, the edition of which is available online, with German translation, at the University of Heidelberg Library (vol 1) (vol 2). An English translation with notes is available at archive.org.

Democritus’ Party Tricks (paignia)

To make bronzeware look golden: mix unfired (i.e., native) sulfur with chalky earth and wipe it with it.
To make an egg like an apple: after boiling an egg, coat it with a mixture of saffron and wine.
To make it so that the cook can’t light the fire: put a house-leek plant on his stove.
To make it so that those who eat garlic don’t smell: bake some beetroot and eat it.
To make an old woman stop blathering and drinking so much: chop up some pine and toss it in her drink.
To make the painted gladiators fight. Smoke some hare’s head underneath them.
To make cold hors-d'oeuvres burn the person eating them. Soak squill in warm water and give it to him to wash his hands with. Relieve with oil.
To make those who have a hard time mingling more easy going. Give them gum with wine and honey to rub on their face.
To make those who drink a lot not get drunk. Eat baked pork lung.
To make those who have to walk home not get thirsty. Chug an egg beaten in wine.
To be able to fuck a lot. Grind up fifty small pine cones with two ladles of sweet wine and pepper corns and drink it.
To get hard whenever you want. Grind up pepper with honey and rub it on your thing.

Δημοκρίτου παίγνια·
Τὰ χαλκᾶ χρυσᾶ ποιῆσαι φαίνεσθαι· θεῖον ἄπυρον
μετὰ γῆς κρητηρίας μείξας ἔκμασσε.
Ὠὸν ὅμοιον μήλον γενέσθαι· ζέσας τὸ ὠὸν χρεῖε κρόκῳ
μείξας μετ’ οἴνου. Μάγειρον μὴ δύνασθαι τὴν πυρὰν
ἀνάψαι· βοτάνην ἀεί[ζω]ον θὲς αὐτοῦ εἰς τὴν ἑστίαν.
Φαγόντα σκόρδον μὴ ὄζειν· [ῥ]ίζας <σ>εύτλου ὀπτήσας φάγε.
Γραῦν μήτε πολλὰ λαλεῖν μήτε πολλὰ πίνειν· πίτυν
κόψας βάλε αὐτῆς εἰς τ[ὸ] κράμμα. Μονομάχας ἐζωγραφη-
μένους μάχεσθαι· ὑποκάτω αὐτῶν κάπνισον λαγοῦ κεφαλήν.
Ψυχρὰ τρώγοντα κατακαίεσθαι· σκίλλαν εἰς ὕδωρ χλιαρὸν
βρέξας δὸς αὐτῷ νίψασ[θ]αι. λύσις ἐλαίῳ. Τοὺς [μεμ]ει-
[γμ]ένους μόγις ε̣[ὖ] ποι[εῖ]ν̣· κόμι μετὰ οἴνου καὶ [μέλιτο]ς
δὸς εἰς τὴν ὄψιν μυρ[ίσα]σθαι. Πολλὰ πίνοντα καὶ μὴ με-
θύειν· χοιραῖον πνεύμονα ὀπτήσας φάγε. Ὁδοιποροῦντα
μὴ διψᾶν· ὠὸν <εἰς> οἶνον ἀνακόψας ῥόφα. Πολλὰ βι[ν]εῖν
δύνασθαι· στροβίλια πεντήκοντα μετὰ δύο κυά[θ]ων
γλυκέος καὶ κόκκους πεπέρεως τρίψας πίε. Στ[ύ]ειν,
ὅτε θέλεις· πέπερι μετὰ μέλιτος τρίψας χρῖέ σου τὸ πρᾶ̣γ̣μ̣α.

Papyri Graecae Magicae VII 168-186

Some fumigations for lizards, snakes and scorpions

Philumenus’ On poisonous animals and their remedies is only available in one manuscript, Vat. gr. 284. A friend at the CMG has been working on a new edition of the text and hopefully it will be published soon. For now, the manuscript is digitized and available at the Vatican Library (with snake drawings in the margins).

Here is chapter six: on fumigations against snakes (and other things), which includes one recipe from Archigenes.

Fumigations for snakes

From Archigenes' works:

Hooves and hair of goats burnt at a distance. Snakes are repelled by their smell.

A compound incense of Philinus, the Theriac:

Of galbanum, root of kakhru, horn of deer, cumin, one ounce each

Grind all the ingredients, mix with vinegar and make them into tablets.

To use, the incense is soaked in oil and placed in the middle of the house, or if you are out in the open, in the middle of your bed.

Another:

of galbanum, of fat of the Egyptian mongoose, one ounce each.

Dissolve them together and store.

To use, fumigate in the same way as before.

Another one, Egyptian:

an old asp, soaked in oil.

[Place the] incense close to the snake's den and it will immediately come out.

Another, bringing down scorpions and every snake and driving them away from the house:

incense of equal amounts of galbanum, realgar, butter, bryony, fat of goat.

θυμιάματα ἑρπετῶν

ἐκ τῶν Ἀρχιγένους· ὁπλαὶ αἰγῶν καὶ τρίχες θυμιώμεναι πόρρωθεν· ἀναστέλλεται <γὰρ> τὰ ἑρπετὰ τῇ τούτων ὀσμῇ. σύνθετον θυμίαμα Φιλίνου <τοῦ> θηριακοῦ· χαλβάνης, κάχρυος τῆς ῥίζης, κέρατος ἐλαφείου, μελανθίου ἀνὰ 𐆄 α. λεάνας πάντα ἀναλάμβανε <ὄξει>, ποιῶν τροχίσκους. ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς χρείας ἀποβρέξας εἰς ἔλαιον θυμία κατὰ μέσον τῆς οἰκίας, ἐὰν δὲ ἐν ὑπαίθρῳ ᾖς, κατὰ μέσον τῆς κοίτης. ἄλλο· χαλβάνης, στέατος ἰχνεύμονος ἀνὰ 𐆄 α τήξας ἀπόθου· ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς χρείας θυμίασον ὁμοίως. ἄλλο Αἰγύπτιον· γῆρας ἀσπίδος βρέξας εἰς ἔλαιον [ἄλλο] θυμία ἐγγὺς τῶν φωλεῶν καὶ εὐθέως ἀναβήσονται. <ἄλλο> καταφέρον καὶ σκορπίους καὶ πᾶν ἑρπετὸν <ἀπελαῦνον> ἐξ οἰκίας· χαλβάνην, σανδαράκην, βούτυρον, βρυωνίαν, στέαρ αἴγειον ἐξ οἰκίς· χαλβάνην, σανδαράκην, βούτυρον, βρυωνίαν, στέαρ αἴγειον ἐξ ἴσου θυμία.

Philumenus, De venenatis animalibus eorumque remediis (On poisonous animals and their remedies), chapter 6 (p. 10,16-28 Wellmann)

Almost Healthy

In Athens, a man contracted itching on his whole body, especially his testicles and his forehead. It was extremely severe. The skin was thick on his whole body and like leprosy in appearance. You couldn't even remove any of the skin because of its thickness. No one was able to help him. Having gone to Melos, however, where there are thermal baths, he was relieved of the itching and the thick skin, but he became dropsical and died.

Ἀθήνῃσιν, ἄνθρωπος ξυσμῷ εἴχετο πᾶν τὸ σῶμα, μάλιστα δὲ τοὺς ὄρχιας καὶ τὸ μέτωπον, εἴχετο δὲ πάνυ σφόδρα, καὶ τὸ δέρμα παχὺ ἦν καθ' ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα, καὶ οἷόν περ λέπρη τὴν πρόσοψιν· καὶ οὐκ ἂν ἀπέλαβες οὐδαμόθεν τοῦ δέρματος ὑπὸ τῆς παχύτητος· τοῦτον οὐδεὶς ἠδύνατο ὠφελῆσαι· διελθὼν δὲ ἐς Μῆλον, ᾗ τὰ θερμὰ λοετρὰ, τοῦ μὲν κνησμοῦ ἐπαύσατο καὶ τῆς παχυδερμίης· ὑδρωπιήσας δὲ ἔθανεν.

Hippocratic Corpus, Epidemics 5.1.9

Eurydamas, in Oineiadai, went mad on the tenth day of a lung inflammation. Once he was treated, he came back to his senses, his saliva became clearer, and the disease took a turn for the better. Then much sleep poured over him, his eyes became jaundiced, and he died near the twentieth day.

Εὐρυδάμας, ἐν Οἰνειάδῃσιν, ἐν περιπλευμονίῃ δεκαταῖος ἤρχετο παρακόπτειν· ἰητρευόμενος δὲ κατενόησέ τε, καὶ τὰ πτύαλα ἐγένετο καθαρώτερα, καὶ προχωρέουσα ἡ νοῦσος ἐπὶ τὸ βέλτιον, ὕπνος τε αὐτέῳ κατεχύθη πουλὺς, καὶ τὰ ὄμματα ἰκτερώδεα ἐγένετο, καὶ ἀπέθανε πρὸς τὰς εἴκοσιν ἡμέρας.

Hippocratic Corpus, Epidemics 5.1.5

Marcellus Sideta On Lycanthropy. A translation of the first account of werewolves.

Marcellus’ On Lycanthropy or Cynanthropy.

Those seized by the disease called cynanthropy or lycanthropy  go out for the whole night in the month of February imitating wolves or dogs in every way, wandering, especially around graveyards, until morning. You can recognize those affected by it through the following signs: they are pale, they look weak, they have dry eyes and they shed no tears. You should see their eyes are hollow, tongue dry and they produce no saliva at all. They are also thirsty and they have incurable wounds on their legs from continuous falls and the bites of dogs.

These are the signs of their condition. One should know that lycanthropy is a form of melancholia, which you will treat at the time of the onset of symptoms by cutting a vein, evacuating the blood to the point of fainting, and having the patient follow a diet of rich food. Let them bathe in sweet water baths, then after you have administered whey from milk for three days, purge using Rufus’, Archigenes’ or Justus’ wonder-drug prepared with colocynth, administering it at intervals two or three times. After purging, theriac from vipers is to be used and the other things mentioned before in the case of melancholia are to be given as well. In the evening, when the disease has already come on, use ointments for the head and those perfumes that cause sleep. Rub the nostrils with opium. Give an occasional hypnotic to drink, as well.

Περὶ λυκανθρωπίας ἤτοι κυνανθρωπίας Μαρκέλλου. οἱ τῇ λεγομένῃ κυνανθρωπίᾳ ἤτοι λυκανθρωπίᾳ νόσῳ κατεχόμενοι κατὰ τὸν Φευρουάριον μῆνα νυκτὸς ἐξίασι τὰ πάντα μιμούμενοι λύκους ἢ κύνας καὶ μέχρις ἡμέρας περὶ τὰ μνήματα μάλιστα διατρίβουσι. γνωρίσεις δὲ τοὺς οὕτω πάσχοντας διὰ τῶνδε· ὠχροὶ τυγχάνουσι καὶ ὁρῶσιν ἀδρανὲς καὶ ξηροὺς τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς ἔχουσι καὶ οὐδὲν δακρύουσι. θεάσῃ δὲ αὐτῶν καὶ κοίλους τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς καὶ γλῶσσαν ξηρὰν καὶ οὐδὲ ὅλως σίελον προχέουσιν. εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ διψώδεις καὶ τὰς κνήμας ἔχουσιν ἡλκωμένας ἀνιάτως διὰ τὰ συνεχῆ πτώματα καὶ τῶν κυνῶν τὰ δήγματα.

τοιαῦτα μὲν αὐτῶν τὰ γνωρίσματα· γινώσκειν δὲ χρὴ μελαγχολίας εἶδος εἶναι τὴν λυκανθρωπίαν, ἣν θεραπεύσεις κατὰ τὸν χρόνον τῆς ἐπισημασίας τέμνων φλέβα καὶ κενῶν τοῦ αἵματος ἄχρι λειποθυμίας καὶ διαιτῶν τὸν κάμνοντα ταῖς εὐχύμοις τροφαῖς. κεχρήσθω δὲ λουτροῖς γλυκέσιν, εἶτα ὀρρῷ γάλακτος χρησάμενος ἐπὶ τρεῖς ἡμέρας κάθαιρε τῇ διὰ τῆς κολυκυνθίδος ἱερᾷ Ῥούφου ἢ Ἀρχιγένους ἢ Ἰούστου, δεύτερον καὶ τρίτον παρέχων ἐκ διαστημάτων. μετὰ δὲ τὰς καθάρσεις καὶ τῇ διὰ τῶν ἐχιδνῶν θηριακῇ χρηστέον. καὶ τὰ ἄλλα παραληπτέον ὅσα ἐπὶ τῆς μελαγχολίας προείρηται. εἰς ἑσπέραν δὲ ἐπερχομένης ἤδη τῆς νόσου τοῖς ὕπνον εἰωθόσιν ἐμποιεῖν ἐπιβρέγμασι τῆς κεφαλῆς χρῆσθαι καὶ ὀσφραντοῖς τοιούτοις καὶ ὀπίῳ διαχρίειν τοὺς μυκτῆρας, ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ ποτίζειν τινὰ τῶν ὑπνωτικῶν.

Marcellus Sideta apud Aetius of Amida, Libri medicinales 6.11, 151,21­–152,12 Olivieri

Not much is know about Marcellus of Side, except what is recorded in the Suda:

“Marcellus Sideta, doctor at the time of Marcus [Aurelius] Antoninus. He wrote forty-two medical books in epic verse, among which is also On Werewolves.”

Μάρκελλος Σιδήτης, ἰατρός, ἐπὶ Μάρκου Ἀντωνίνου. οὗτος ἔγραψε δι' ἐπῶν ἡρωϊκῶν βιβλία ἰατρικὰ δύο καὶ μ’, ἐν οἷς καὶ περὶ λυκανθρώπου.

Suda μ, entry 205

*The text refers to a drug called “hiera,” which means “sacred.” I am not sure where the name comes from. It might come from the fact that it was used to treat epilepsy, i.e., the sacred disease (ἡ ἱερὰ νόσος), or maybe it contained ingredients considered sacred, or maybe it is a marketing gimmick. From what I’ve read, lots of different drugs are called “hiera,” from plasters to purgatives. See, e.g., Galen, HVA 2.11:

‘Whenever, then, the fever isn't strong, and you have experience with the nature of the patient, you'll arrive at the dose of the purging drug when you use the ones mentioned by Hippocrates or even some other ones that work in similar ways, of which one is [prepared] with colocynth. It is usually called “hiera.”‘

ὅταν οὖν ὁ πυρετὸς ᾖ μὴ σφοδρός, ἔμπειρός τε ᾖς τῆς τοῦ κάμνοντος φύσεως, εἰς τὴν τοῦ καθαίροντος φαρμάκου δόσιν ἀφίξῃ χρώμενος ἤτοι τοῖς ὑφ' Ἱπποκράτους εἰρημένοις ἢ καί τισιν ἄλλοις τῶν ὁμοιοτρόπων, ὧν ἐστι καὶ τὸ διὰ τῆς κολοκυνθίδος, ἱερὰν δ' αὐτὴν συνήθως ὀνομάζουσι.

Galen, In Hippocratis De victu acutorum commentaria, HVA 2.11, 172 Helmreich (15.539 Kühn)

I am translating it as “wonder drug” for fun, but to be honest, I can’t figure out where the name comes from. Justus’ version, a purgative, is preserved by Oribasius. Here it is:

“Justus’ Wonder Drug

• Of colocynth insides, 22 drams

• Of french Lavender, germander, white pepper, black pepper, agaric, black hellebore, scammony, 13 drams each

• Of gum ammoniac, thyme, saffron, spurge, 8 drams each

• Of Myrrh, 4 drams

• Of roasted squill, 16 drams

• (some: of cassia, 4 drams; and of spikenard, 8 drams )

• A sufficient amount of honey”

Ἱερὰ Ἰούστου.

Κολοκυνθίδος ἔντερα 𐅻 κβ’, στοιχάδος, χαμαίδρυος, πεπέρεως λευκοῦ, πεπέρεως μέλανος, ἀγαρικοῦ, ἐλλεβόρου μέλανος, σκαμμωνίας ἀνὰ 𐅻 ιγ’, ἀμμωνιακοῦ, θύμου, κρόκου, εὐφορβίου ἀνὰ 𐅻 η’, σμύρνης 𐅻 δ’, σκίλλης ὀπτῆς 𐅻 ιϛ’ (ἔνιοι κασίας 𐅻 δ’ καὶ ναρδοστάχυος 𐅻 η’), μέλιτος τὸ ἀρκοῦν.

Oribasius, Medical Collections, 8.47.21 (300,8-13 Raeder)